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JOSEPH
S C H I L L I N G E R
C O R R ES P O N D E N C E
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COURSE
Subject: Music
With. Dr. Jerome Gross
Lesson CCLVIII.
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THEORY OF ORCHESTRATION
PART ONE: Ii�STRUMENTS
Introduction
What mas been known for the last couple of centuries
as "symphony orchestra" is a heterogeneous aggregation of
antiquated tools.
'vVooden boxes and bars, wooqen pipes, dried
'
sheep's guts, horse hair and the like are the materials out of
which the sound-producing instruments are built.
.,
Evolution of musical instruments, during its history
of several millenia, followed the course of individual crafts
manship and of trial and error method.
The instruments themselves are not scientifically
conceived and not scientifically combined with each other.
Some of the orchestral groups participate with the others by
virtue of tradition (like brass and string instruments which,
in most cases, do not blend) and not by necessity.
Nobody ever
asks tr1e basic question: why should there be such a combination
as the stringed-bow, the wood-wind, the brass-wind and the
percussive instruments; and why should the respective groups
be. used in the unjustified ratios, which are considered standard.
It takes a long time to force upon an average normal
human ear such combinations as piano and violin or strings and
Copyright, 1942, Joseph Schillinger, New York City
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brass.
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And this imposition of unblendable combinations
upon a selector called the human ear is termed"cultivation of
musicianst1ip".
But eventually people begin to like it, as
..
.
they beg.in to like smoking tobacco, which suffocates th·em at
first.
I t is even possible to condition the human ear to hear
the sound at a sustained intensity, while the sound at its
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source is fading. Such is the case of piano. Ordinarily we
are not aware of the fact that piano tone fades very quickly.
I once, intentionally, subjected myself (at the age of 30) to
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a forced isolation from tt1e piano for three $ole ·months.
'·
The
only sounds I heard at that time were that of an organ and of
ahoral singing (i.e., the durable sounds).
peasants.
I lived among the
When I returned to the city, the piano sounded to
my ear as it really sounds, i.e., as a percussive instrument
with exaggerated attack and quick fading.
It took me two whole
weeks to "recover" from this unconditioned modus of hearing.
The implication is that many of the orchestral tone
qualities and blends are gradually assimilated by our ear.
Many of them are highly artificial and do not possess the
appeal of natural beauty, as many of the natural forms and
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natural colors do •
The musician•s argument against better balanced,
more uniform tone-qualities, which are possible on the electronic instrµments., is that they have no individuality, while
the old instruments have.
But what they call "individualityn
is often a group of minor defec· ts and imperfections.
•
A
3.
trom bone, due to its acoustical design, has several (or at
The composer, on the other hand,
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least one) tones missing.
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can easily imagine those missing tones and imagine-them in
the trombone quality.
Yet he cannot use them in his score, as
they cannot be executed.
Now, take a bassoon.
Its low b�
is of inferior quality than the surrounding tones.
Why should
it be necessary to have a defective quality on one particular
pitch?
No one knows.
On the other hand, a composer, due to his experience,
can imagine certain tone-qualities beyond tlie ranges of the
respective standard instruments.
He cannot us� these qualities
because there are no instruments to perform them.
Under such conditions, the art of orchestration
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amo\Ults to a constant (and 1n most cases unsuccessful)
struggle of the composer's imagination and inventiveness
against the actuality of instrumental limitations and imper
fections.
The way things stand today, the composer cannot
compose in terms of tone-qualities, intensities, frequ.encies
and attaek-forms (if he does not want to live in a fool's
paradise) , but in terms of concrete instruments, each
designed with no regard to any other instrument, each, there
fore, having peculiarities of its own.
Musicians also have a sentimentally-childish
attachment to craftsmanship of executing a "beautiful" tone
from a violin or other instruments�
indeed, can execute such a tone.
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I
Very few performers,
But why is this self-imposed
4.
difficulty and struggle necessary?
Such an attitude has
a flavor of sportsmanship and competition.
'
Why not liberate
the performer from the necessity of struggle for obtaining
the proper tone-quality, while such tone-quality can be
achieved, and has · been achieved, by means of electronic sound
production.
The answer in many cases is ·that manf good :
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performers, once relieved from this struggle� would feel
lost, as to them production of tone ·-quality is one half of
the entire interpretation.
In 1918 I published an article ("Electrification
of Music") in which I expounded my own ideas (at that time
completely new and original) on the inadequacy of old musical
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instruments and on the necessity of developing new ones, where
sound could be generated and controlled electtically.
I
thought it would be desirable to have ibone-qualities, attackforms, frequencies (tuning) and intensities un�er control,
and to be able. to vary each component through continuous or
discontinuous (tempered) scales, suddenly or gradually, and,·
where the degree of the graduality of transition could be
determined as well.
And though there is no universal use of electronic
music yet, it is progressing very rapidly.
has already come true.
Most of my dream
In 1920 Leon TheP.emin demonstrated
his first primitive model of an electronic instrument before
a convent.ion of engineers in Moscow, Russia _,
•
On this model
pitch was controlled by movement of the right hand 1n f ree
space (in actuality, in electro-magnetic field) and volume,
by a speci fically designed pedal; the form of attack was
controlled by a knob;
the timbre was constant •
.
Through a number of years of my collaboration with
this inventor, the early history of the electronic music
culminated in two Carnegie Hall performances in New York,
.
where a whole ensemole of 14 improved space-controlled
theremins, m�ufactured by RadiQ Corporation of America (on
a mass production scale at the plant in Camden, New Jersey)
participated in 1930.
T hat first decade of electronic music, in which I
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am proud to have taken the part of a musical pioneer, started
the art of music on an entirely new road, which is in pace
with the engineering accomplishments of our industrial era
of applied science .
There is no turning back from this road,
regardless of the absolute value of today's models of
The fact is that a new principle of
electronic instruments.
sound production and control has been established, and this
principle will bring further improvements and perfection.
It is important to realize that the existing
musical instruments and their combinations are not stabilized
but ever-changing accessories of musical expression; that the
absolute knowledge of the functioning o f the keys of a clarinet
is of no basic value, as the design of such an instrument
varies and the whole family of such instruments may vanish •
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Thus, though in my Description of Standard
Instruments all the necessary information is given, the
composer must not overrate the importance of it, as the
entire combination of a symphony orchestra, with all its
component instruments, very soon may become completely out
moded and eventually obsolete.
It will be a museum combina
tion for the performance of old music.
New instruments and
combinations will talce its place.
The moral of this Introduction is that it is more
•
important for the composer to know the physical aspects of
tone-qualities, frequencies, intensities and �ttack-forms per
se, rather than their resultant forms, as tr1ey appear on
certain types of the old instruments., It is a warning not
•
to place too much importance and confidence upon certain
types of instruments, only because they are so much in use
today.
In my Acoustical Basis ofOrchestration
- the
student will find the type of knowledge which is basic and
general and, tr1erefore, can be applied to any special case ..
This system is devised with a point of view which will give a
lasting service and will not become antiquated with the first
turn the history of this subject takes.
In order to broaden the student's outlook upon the
existing instruments, I am supplementing this Introduction with
a chronological table borrowed from my other work: "Varieties
of Musical Experience" •
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7.
Two items of this table deserve particular
attention: (1) the chronological precipitation of progress
and (2) the age of the new "electronic" era.
SCHEME OF EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
From Prehistoric Time
I.
MaP
utilizes his own organs: voice, palms, feet,
lips, tongue, etc.
From 10 - 20 Thousand Years Ago Un�il Our Time
II. Man utilizes finished or almost finished objects of
the surrounding world: bamboo pipes, sl)ells, bones
of birds, animal horns and antlers, 'etc.
From 5 - 10 Thousand Years Ago Until Our Time
III. Man processes raw material, giving it a definite
form: from a piece of terra cotta and hunter's bow
up to the Steinway piano and modern organ.
From 18th Century A.D,
IV.
MaP
constructs automatical�y performing instruments:
from 18th Century, mechanical musical instruments;
from 19th Century, recording and reproducing
musical instruments.
From the End of 19th Century
• v. Man invents a transmission of sound waves on long
distances: radio.
From the Beginning o� 20th Century
VI.
MaP
devises the sound production by means of:
1. Electro magnetic induction
2. Interference i n electro magnetic field
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8.
DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD INSTRUMENTS
Stringed-Bow Instruments (The Violin Family)
The contemporary stringed-bow instruments have as
their immediate ai:icestor the viol family.
When the treble
viol, in the hands of Italian cra ftsman, achieved its
ultimate degree of perfection it became the dominant member
o f the viol family: the treble-violin emancipated itsel f into
plain "violin".
In this sense, the evolution of the violin.
family followed the downward (in the way of frequency) trend,
i.e., the perfecting of the violin was followed up by the
perfecting of violas, 'celli and string doubl�-basses (or
<
contrabasses) .
This course of evolution was somewhat contrary
to the development of the viol-family, where bass-viol (later,
violone) was the dominant instrument of the group, the
Thus "·violoncello" originated as the
diminutive form of the 11 violone" ••
patriarch of the family.
The more remote ancestor of this family is the
Arabian "rebab", a primitive type of stringed-bow (often
having only two strings .., however tuned in 3+2 ratio, i.e.,
in a perfect fifth) instrument and having a resonating
chamber.
This ancient instrument leads us back to the "mono
cho�d", a one-string bow instrument with a resonating chamber,
and, finally, to the actual source of the violin, v1hich is
bow and arrow.
This remarkable evolution of a defense weapon into
a musical instrument of high degree of perfection consumed not
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only millenia of astronomical clock-time, but also an
incalculable amount of human energy so lavishly spent by the
ge nerations of craftsmen and music al performers.
But with so much said and written about the
violin-making a nd violin-playing, certain facts remain
obscure.
As huma nity, most of its time (betV1reen and during
the eras of mutual mass-extermination) , is engaged in creative
mythologr_, the history of violin discloses a constant struggle
between the• glorificatio n of violin-makers. and violin-players •
.
more esse ntial in
The fu ndamental question is: which factor is
achieving perfection, the ins�rument or the pl�yer?
would deny the importance of both.
Nobody
However, I am entitled to
state, on the basis of experiments performed with Nathan
Milstein and another highly accomplished, but not extraordinary,
representative of t he same Leopold Auer school (whic h
contributed Heifetz, Zimbalist, Elman, Piastre, Seidel and
many other virtuosi), that the player is a more importan t
factor than the instrument.
.
I draw th.is comparison particularly
1n reference to quality of the tone-produc tion.
In my
experiment both performers were tested on the same two
instruments: one was a violin made by Antonio Stradivari and
the other, a mediocre sample of a mediocre craftsmanship.
Milstein•s tone-quality was superior on both violins and with
less individual difference between the two instruments, than
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that of the other violin ist.
This may be a good lesson to
some parents and teachers: only a mediocrity needs a very
10.
0
expensive instrument.
As the best musical organizations of today have
at their disposal some of the best stringed-bow performers
(usually the potential soloists rejected by the market's
policy to use only the few very best) , the composer of our
civilization may indulge in scoring which requires, on the
part of the performer, a highly developed and versatile
technique.
A. Violin
1. Tuning
....
...
The entire range of the violin is 'Written in treble
clef.
The four strings are named g, d, a, e.
From the
physical standpoint all four strings have a different timbre.
•
The timbre of the g-string is particularly different from the
three upper strings.
In the hands of an accomplished performer
this timbral variance is greatly minimized.
However, good
playing does not affect the variance of the g-string with the
three upper strings.
This difference is due to the fact that
g-string is a sheep's gut wrapped around with a metal wire,
while d-string and a-string are sheep's guts which remain
•
unwrapped.
E-string only about three decades agp underwent a
transformat.ion: sheep 's gut was replaced by a metal wire ..
ratio.
Violin is tuned in perfect fifths, i.e., in 3+2
The tuning begins with the a-string.
of the remaining strings are:
2 ,
d -- 3
•
Thus the ratios
11 ..
As the above ratios noticeably deviate from the
corresponding pitches of the twelve-unit equal temperament,
some of the more discriminating composers (Hindemith, for
instance, makes it a rigid rule) avoid the use of open
strings altogether, except in chords.
Figure I.
Tuning of the Violin
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12.
Lesson CCLIX,
2. Playing
The Left Hand Technique
Intonation is obtained on the violin by means
.
of shortening its string.s, which is accomplished by pressing
the string against the fingerboard.
For this purpose fingers
of the left hand are employed. Strings vibrate between the
two fixed points (nut and bridge) and transfer.their
vibrations to the bridge.
The vibrations of the bridge
of the violin,
stimulate sympathetic response from the body
'
which is a resonating chamber.
<-
Four fingers of the left hand (thumb is excluded)
participate in producing intonations.
•
The various distances
which the left hand occupies on the fir1gerboard (while
supporting the violin) 1n relation to the nut are called
positions. Each position on each string emphasizes four
pitch-units of the common diatonic scales.
The positions
begin with an open string. Such a position is known as
zero position.
Figure II.
The Zero Position
0
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5
13.
Q.
Arabic numerals indicate the fingers employed.
Major tetrachords are used here merely for corivenience:
other accidentals can be employed as well.
The first position begins with a whole tone from
the open string.
Figure III.
The First Position
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4
I
4
3
1
(,
4
3
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If the first pitch-unit is only a semi-tone away
from the open string, then such a position is called
hal.f-position or semi-position.
Figure IV.
The Half-Position
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From here on, violinists do not discriminate
any semi-positions, but consider only the Secon�, the Third,
the Fourth and so on, positions, regardless of the fact
•
whether they are tone-and-a-half or two tones, two-and-a-half
or three tones from the open string.
Figure V.
Positions above the First
...
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2,
4
3
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15.
The three.lower strings (G, D, A) are seldom
used beyond
the eighth pos ition; the e-string is used even
.
1n orchestra-playing up to the fifteenth position (the
•
beginning of Rimsky-Korsakovrs opera TIKitezh").
All violin-playing is accomplished in most cases,
.
including double-stops and chords, by means of standard
fingering.
Chromatic alterations are performed by moving the
same finger a semitone up or a semitone down.
Insofar as the quality of intonation is concerned,
it is always easier to move the fingers in"the same position,
making transitions from one string to another.t than to change
positions rapidly, particularly when such positions are not
adjacent.
•
It is to be remembered that though the use of the
four fingers is analogous on all four string s and in all
positions, the actual spatial intervals on the fingerboard
contract logarithmically while moving upward in pitch.
This
means that a semitone·in the first position is spatially wider
than a semitone in the second position; the latter is wider
than the semitone in the third pos ition, and so on.
Musical intervals from the open strings can be
defined in terms of positions and positions can be de fined
in terms of musical intervals.
Position, where a given note is produced by the
fir st finger, equals the number of the corresponding musical
interval, minus one.
•
•
For instance:
16 ..
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3
2. I.
•-,.. , •
The given note gl
the third finger requires the
•
•
to be played on a-string with
hand.
to b e in such
a
posit ion
where� can be played on a-string with the first finger.
•
As
the musical interval from� t.o � (up) is a fifth, the position
can be defined as 5 - 1 = 4 (i.e., it is the fourth position).
This is so because the first position is produced by the
interval of a second (i.e., 2) from the open string •
(_)
This proposition can be reversed.
•
For example:
what note is played by the second finger in the sixth position
. ?
on the e-s tring.
The first finger in the sixth position produces an
interval of a seventh (i.e., 6 + 1 == 7); therefore the second
finger, in the same position produces an octave.
Thus the note
to be found is�, one octave above the open string ..
Figure VI.
"
(please see next page)
•
•
(Fig. VI)
(
Notes)
Example of Fingering Single
•
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Am:
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Playing of S2p
The so-called "doubie-stops", i.e., couplings,
harmonic intervals and two-part harmonies belong t o this
category.
S2p are played by means of standard fingering.
Left hand is con sidered in an open position if the finger of
the lower of the two pitches corresponds to a smaller number
than that of the higher of the two pitches.
The reversal of
this proposition corresponds to a closed. position.
Open
positions are easier to play and therefore are more grateful.
Closed positions can be used in double s�ops without particular
difficulties, but preferably not too fast.
Ill
Ill
III
18.
Figure VII.
Fingering of S2p
•
Unisons (possible only with one open string):
'
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04
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•
Seconds:
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Thirds:
r
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Fourths:
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(continued on next page)
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19.
(Fig. VII, cont.)
Fifths (are played with one finger pressing two adjacent strings):
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Sixths:
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Sevenths:
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Octaves are mostly used 1n solo playing. As a
perfect acoustical octave (i.e., 2·+ 1 ratio) sounds quite
empty, soloists usually resort to playing an imperfect
octave (somewhat more narrow in stretch than the acoustical
octave), which sounds fuller�
0
In scoring for an orchestra,
octaves of violins are usually written divisi (i.e., both
pitches are played by the different parts).
•
20 .,
•
C
•
As octaves without participation of an open
string require a stretch between the first and the fourth
finger, it becomes obvious, that intervals wider than octave
can be performed only if the use of at least one open string
is possible.
A specia1 double-stop effect should not escape
the attention of the orchestrator: passages on one string
combined with another string remaining open.
•
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For example:
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Such passages can be played at a considerable
speed .,
Playing of �3P
Playing of triple-stops includes melody with two
couplings and three-part harmony .,
When �ploying 3 fingers at a time (i.e.,
without participation of open strings) , .only open position
•
of the left hand can be used •
considerations hold true •
•
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•
In all other cases, previous
3 o�en strings·
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Figure VII I.
Flngerlilg of S3p
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22.
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Playing of S4p
Playing of quadruple-stops includes melody with
three couplings and four-part harmony.
quadruple-stop with four open strings:
There is only one
All other cases include 3, 2, 1 or no open strings�
All left hand positions must be open.
Such chords as 8(5) in
open J::l.armonic ( 2 ) pos1tions are quite easy because only 3
•
fingers participate (as the perfect fifth is played with only
one finger).
(please see pages 23-25)
C
•
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•
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Three.open strings:
--.
23.
04
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7!I" 0
7!J' 0
3
75' 0
Two open_ strings:
0
1" 0
0
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No. t. I.ooae Leaf
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One op�n string:
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No. t. Loose Leaf
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25.
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No open strings:
2, 4
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The above tables are merely samples of the
systematization of the material on fingering� they can be
extended to higher positions (with or without participation
of the open strings).
These forms of fingering are applicable to
various instrumental forms.
As the bow can move s-imultaneously over not more
•
•
26 .,
C
than two strings (some exceptional virtuosi can bow three
strings simultaneously in for te; but such an accomplishment
is exceptional and we cannot count on it while writing
orchestral parts for the violins).
Thus I (2 p) can be performed as:
ap and a2p in sequent combinations;
can be performed as:
I(3p)
ap and a2p in sequent combinations;
I (4p) can be performed as:
ap and a2 p in sequent combinations.
Figure IX.
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Examples of instrumen tal forms :suitable
for the violin
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27.
Lesson CCLX.
;
The Right
- - Arm Teclmique
Bowing is a process by which friction is produced
between the horse-hair of the bow and the string.
•
The
various techniques, by which strings can be set to oscillate
in different patterns, constitute the bowing attacks.
bowing attacks cause large amplitudes and light bowing
attacks, small amplitudes.
Heavy
In order to produce a continuous
sound, without a renewal of attack, the bow must move in one
direction.
The duration of a period depends upon the
pressure of the bo� on the string.
Thus the' period of
continuous bowing in one direction in piano is great&r than
L
in forte .
•
We shall now classify the forms of bowing as the
forms of attack in relati on to the durability of sound.
We
shall assume that the total scale of attacks lies between
the two limits: the lower limit corresponds to the most
continuous form of attack and the upper limit, to the most
discontinuous, i.e ., abrupt form of attack .
The movement of the bow in the direction from
g-string to e-string is considered downward and, when
necessary, is indicated as
n ;
the movement in the opposite
direction is considered upward and is indicated as
V.
The
upbeat groups are usually played V and the downbeat groups
·
0
are usually played
n .
Otherwise composer must indicate
the direction of the bowing which expresses his desire.
28.
TheScale of Bowing Attaclcs
(1) legato : a group of notes united by a slur represents
continuous bowing in one direction; large legato pertains
to a long group, and small legato, to a short group;
I
(2) non-legato (detache) or detached is indicated by the
absence of slurs or any other s igns : each note corresponds to an individual smooth bowing attack,
the
bow must be turned 1n the opposite direction after each
note;
•
(3� portamento (in bowing) represents a group of slightly
'
accentuated attacks, while the bow moves in one
direction; it is indicated as follows :
•
•
ii!�
,,,,
.......
the bow
(4 ) spicato! abrupt bowing for each attack, while
•
moves in one direction: �� ��
....__,,,
lighter than staccato;
; it sounds somewhat
( 5) staccato: abrupt bov,ing for each attack and changing the
direction of the bow after each attaclc :
JJJJ
• • • •
(no slurs) ;
(6) martellato (hammering): a vigorous dovmward or upward
stroke indicated like this: ���� (no slurs; bow changes
its direction �fter each attack, unless specified otherwise) ;
(7) sal tando ( jumping): a bouncing . group of attacks obtained
by one stroke (usually two, three or four attacks, which
can be described as throwing the bow from above; bouncing
is caused by the resilience of the string and the bow;
saltando has a light percussive character and is usually
employed in the accompaniments of the character of
•
Spanish dances: this effec t is a mild v ersion of casta· n'ees; ,
saltando is indicated like this: ��� ;
.....,_ _,,
(8) col legno (with the wooden part of the bow) is marked by
these words above the part; no othe r indications are necessary;
this effect is still mor e percussive in character than s- altando:
it is performed by an individual throw of the bow downward upon
the string, each throw corresponding to an individual attack;
the general effect of col legno is that of pianissimo.
To continue the abrupt forms of attack, we may
.
�
various
forms
of
plucking
the strings.
add, at this point, the
'
.
From the orchestrator 's viewpoint , there are two
basic forms of pi�zicato : (1) Rizzicato le gato, where the
respective finger of the left hand is moved on a small interval
(usually a semitone or a whole tone) , after the string is
plucked (this effect resembles the so-called "Hawaii.an
guitar") ;
(2) pizzicato (the usual form) , where each attack,
single (one string) or compound (several str.ings; this
sounds like an arpe.ggio) is produced by individual plucking •
The regular pizzicato is marked ptzz. and the pizzicato
legato is marked pizz. and also indicated by a slur: pizz.
IJ .
From the violinist's standpoint there is also a distinction
between the right-hand pizzicato or the left-hand pizzicato
(this is indicated by a cross : [ +] above the note; it is
mostly used on ope n strings, and can be e asily executed
amidst rapid passages of bowing) •
I
-
Bowing positions in reia�ion to the sections o f the bow
In relation to the manner of playing the, bow may
be considered as c onsisting of three sect ions: the nut
( l ower part), the middle sectio n and the head (upper part),
which in the international musical terminology corresponds
respectively t o :
(1) du taion; (2) media (or: modo o rdinan.e �) and
(3) a punto d Jarco �
When the specific sections of the bow are t o be
'
used, the composer must make the corresponding indications •
However, du talon is associated with martell'a.to, a punto d tarco
is associated with high-pitched bowing trem olo in pianiss.imo
and media simply serves as a symbo l of cancellation o f one o f
•
the previous special forms of bowing .
Bowing p o sitions in relation � the fingerboard and
the• bridge
There are three such basic - positions: (1) over the
fingerboard ( usually . at its widest part), known and marked as
s-ul tast o ; this effect produces a delicate flute-like qual ity;
( 2) in the usual place between the fingerboard and the bridge
(usually slightly closer to the, bridge), indicated also as
media or modo ordina.Ee ..:, used mostly for can cel lation of the
preceding or the following effect; (3) very close to the
bridge, marked as s�l ponticel�o, which is mostly used in the
bov,ing trem o l o ; this produces a nasal "double-reed" quality.
It is possible, while performing the bowing tremo lo,
•
31.
L
to move the b ow gradual ly from sul taste to sul ponticello
or back.
This is a neglected but very valuable technique,
by which a gradual modification of quality (tasto corres
ponds to flute,. ponticello, to double-reed) can be obtained
on all the stringed-bow instruments ..
Bowing tremolo (i.e., rapid forward-backward
movement of the bow) must not be confused with tremolo
legato, which is a finger-tremolo (like the trill, only in
a wider pitch-interval) .
•
3 . Range
The range of the violin, as empl'oyed by the
comp osers, uew upward during the XVIII and XIX Centurie s.
L
It was the desire of some of the out standing composers to
•
employ tri.e p itch beyond the range known to their predecessors.
This evolution of the range must be considered now to be
completed, so far as the known type of violin is concerned�
The reason for this is that Rimsky-Korsakov empl oyed (as a
pedal point), at the very opening of his opera "Kitezh",
]2_ of the third octave (the highest J2. on the piano keyboard),
which happens to lie (that is the point of finger-pressure)
at the very end of the fingerboard.
During Beethoven's
time, the u.pper limit was at £. of the sam e octave ..
Only e-string is used in such a wide range; all
other strings are used within the range of a ninth (14 semi
tones) ; however, the range of g-string is frequently extended
to a twel.fth and even more (the purp ose of this is to obtain
•
32.
C
the specific quality of high positions on t hat string) .
Figure X.
Range of the Violin
•
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iA;...
.,
l)
J
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I
•
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.
�
L,
J
•
.
•
e:.
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•
.
.�
I
I
-,
--,
I
•
v
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1
(i)
(t )
1
.
I
I
�,
I
••
'
'
'
'i/
'
'
I
'
:.,
...
.� .
(1) represents the limit for cantabile in unsupported
unison (i.e., without octave doubling) and cor responds
•
to the upper limit of the highest human voice, i.e.,
coloratura soprano; it is also the limit for pizzicato ,
after whi ch limit the sound becomes too dry;
(2) Haydn 's limit;
(3) Beethoven•s limit; also the l imit of free orchestra-
playing. beyond which only easy passages in single notes
•
and sus tained notes (single or double) can be used;
•
(4) the limit in the early scores of Wagner reached � below
this Af ; the latter was intro duc ed in the "Ring";
(5) Rimsky-Korsakov • s
point.
11
Kitezh 11; no fingerboard beyond this
..,
•
4. Quality
The basic resources (besides the ones which
we have already described) of special tone-qualities on
the stringed-bow instruments and decidedly contrasting
with each other are the mute (double-reed quality, marked
con sordino) and the harmonics or overtones (purest
quality: sine-wave; no vibrato).
The mute o�� be put on
(con sordino) or taken off (senza sordino) wherever the
composer desires, providing he gives enough time to the
performer to make such a change.
t
•
L
34.
u
Lesson CCLXI.
Harmonics on the violin are produced by
touching instead of pressing the string.
The scale of
harmonics can be only approximated 1n our system of musical
notation .
Harmonics are a natural phenomenon corresponding
to what 1s known in mathematics
. as " natural harmonic series",
i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, a, 9, • • • •
The sound of harmonics co-rresponds to simple
ratios of frequencies and to the partial distribution of a
sounding body.
'
In the case of strings, harmonics correspond
to the division of a string into uniform secti ons.
These
sections are in inverse proportion to the order of a harmonic.
•
Thus, in order to get the fundament-al (which is
considered the first harmonic) , it is necessary to let the
entire string vibrate.
In order to get the second harmonic,
it is necessary to let the two halves of the string vibrate
The zero point between the two halves 1s known
separately.
as "knot".
of the knot.
The finger must touch (not press) at the point
Thus breaking the en tire length of the string
into two halves, you allow the upper half (which is closer to
the bridge) to vibrate.
•
The higher the harmonic, the shorter the partial
division of the string (and the higher the frequencies).
The correspondence between the divisions of the
string and the order of harmonics is as follows •
•
35.
Division of the string.
C
Order of the harmonic.
l . . • • • • • • • • • • •
1 . . . . . . fi • • •
.,
2
-13 . . . . .
-. . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
2
3
4
• • • • • • • • • • • • • 5
5
1
6
.
6
Beyond this limit harmonics produced on the stringed
- . . . . . ,, .
•
. . . . .
bow instruments become impractical, except perhaps for the
double-bass seventh harm onic.
What violinrsts usually do not
know, and what the composer should know is th�t every knot in
the same subdivision (denominator) produces identical harmonics .,
Figure XI •
•
String
¼.
•
( 2)
--_:>
- .. --____
::> B
A E_-_
__ E---�
�
K,
1/�
1/4
1/s-
C
¼
¼
36 .
The practical conse quences of this situation are
the diversified ways of getting a harmonic in a passage where
a violinist may thil1k it impossible,
Imagine a regular rapid
passage which brings you to the upper (c loser to the bridge)
part of the fingerboard.
Now assume you want to use the third
A violinis� would try to reach the point K , in
Fig.XI (2) • while touching the string at the point K 2 would
harmonic.
produce the same harmonic.
As more careful composers (Wagner, for instance)
indicate in musical notation by a diamond-shaped note
(
<>, ,
'-
etc.) the point of the finger-contac t with
the string, it is possible to carry out the above principle
•
to a practical end •
Each string is subject to the same physical
conditions, so far as harmoliios are concerned.
the string, the more pronounced the harmonics.
The longer
Thus, the
quality of, harmonics increases in the following orde r of
instruments:
(1) Violin
(2 ) Viola
(3) Ce llo
(4 ) Bass
it sounds.
The lower the order of the harmonic, the ric her
This means that lower harmoni cs still form
physically their own harmonics (or the harmonics of the
se cond order).
Thus it is correct to state that, let us say,
37.
the third harmonic of the Bass is denser than the third
harmonic of the •Cello, and that the latter is denser than
the third harmonic of the Viola, etc.
But the sixth harmonic
of the 'Cello may be not as dense as the second harmonic of
the Violin.
Here is a complete table of harmonics for the
string tuned in c, which can be transposed to any other
tuning.
The large notes indicate the sound of the open
string, the diamond notes indicate the point of finger-contact
•
with the string and the small notes indicate,'the resulting
· pitch of the harmonic .
Figure XII .
'
-
\
i
\
-
+
+
1'
*-
..-- .1.&.
+-
•
38.
Fractions �dicate the frequency ratios.
black notes single out the impractical cases.
All
With regard to equal temperament the corres
ponding contact points (K) are practically exact:
2
y ,
3
2 '
4
3 '
16
9
16 is very slightly lower
9
-4 ,
•
25
16 '
6 and 12
5
o
10
4
are slightly lower
are slightly highe r
In addition to· all these harmonics; usually
called "natural barmonicsn, there are harmonics produced by
•
pressing the string with one finger and touching with
another.
The latter are called by the violinists "artificial
harmonics".
In reality harmonics cannot be artificial.
is a phenomenon.
sunset"?
What would you think of an "artificial
It
The pressing finger shortens the string and the
touching finger produces the respective partial subdivision.
There is only one harmonic which is practical under such
conditions; the fourth harmcuatg, The pressing finger is
always the first finger and the to uching finger is always
the fourth.
The practical advantage of this device is its
chromatic universality, which permits the performance of any
melodies in the form of harmonics .
•
39 ..
Figure XIII .
/
£>
-e-
••
•
�,-
-e-
-
-
u
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B ., Viola
Viola differs from violin mainly in its tone
quality and in the possibilities for virtuo-sity.
The tone
quality is "'somber'-' as compared to that of the violin.
technique of perform&nce is more difficult than on the
violin.
The
The reason for this is that though the dimensions
of the viola are greater, the system of fingering remains
the same.
Thus, playing viola requires greater stretching
of fingers.
In most cases, the unsuccessful but broadhanded
and practically-minded violinists become violists.,
It is
interesting to mention that one of the best composers of
today, Paul Hindemith, is one of the best violists of today.,
For many years he was the leader and the violist of the
excellent "Amar-Hindemith Quartette" .
He composed works for
this neglected instrument in the form of a concerto, sonata .
and unaccompanied suite.
The tuning of viola is one fifth lower than that
of the violin.
The alto:t and the treble clefs are used in
notation of the viola parts.
40,
Figure XIV.
Tuning
The range of viola for the orchestra use shall
not exceed a ninth from each of t h e lower t hree strings
(C, G, D) and be not more th an a twelfth from the upper
In writing for viola solo, the upper string
string (A) .
.
'
can be used within a range of two octaves.
-U
Figure XV .
Range
•
=-I
�
••
•
_J
j
•
-
lt
.e.
I
�
'
•
•
It is correct to say that viola is related to
violin as two to three.
All forms of technica1 executi on correspond to
that of t he violin.
u
T he parts written for the viola shall
not be limited in any respect, as t he limitat ions of
virtuosity do not concern orchestral parts.
•
•
41 .,
•
Lesson CCLXII.
C . Violoncello
Violonc.ello means a small violone, which was the
bass viol of the viol family.
name in spite of its size.
This is why it has a diminutive
This instrument is commonly
called cello, which does not make any sense, but ·conveys the
association through the established use of this word.
better to write " 'cello" (with apostrophe in front) .
It is
Being held in a different position from the violin
•
and the viola and exceeding the latter in size ( • cello is
.
related to viola as one to two and to violin as one to three) ,
•cello requires a different type of technique in fingering.
The intervals on the fingerboard are wider, and the stretching
is greater.
Thoug h the thumb does not have to support the
instrument, it seldom participates in playing and is used on
special occasions only (mainly for pressing the string while
playing harmonics) .
The thumb is indicated as " 9 " •
All
other fingers are· numbered in the same way as on the violin.
'Cello is tuned in fifths and one octave lower
than viola.
Bass (F) , tenor (C) and treble (G) clefs are
commonly used.
Contemporary composers in most cases ·have
abolished the tenor cle f, bu t the •cellists have to know it
well, because most composers of the past used it in their
scores.
,,
42 .
u
Figure XVI .
Tuning
,
-•
V
-e-
-
-
•
The range of 'cello for orchestra use shall not
•
exceed a ninth from each of the lower three strings (C, G, D)
and a twelfth from the upper string (A) .
In_ solo playing,
however, the latter can have a two-octave range.
Figure XVII,.
Range
••
••
I,_
J
-L
-
s
r
j
'
'
••
•
�
1,.
J
It is customary in an ordinary passage-playing
to make transitions from string to string in one position,
rather than to change positions on one string.
In case of
chromatic scalewise passages positions are frequently changed .
The usual fingering for the lower positions 1s
based on the following principle:
(1) semitones are played by adjacent fingers;
u
(2) whole tones by alternate fingers;
43 ..
(5) chromatic scales are played with continuous changes
of positions, each position emphasizing three fingers :
the first, the second and the third;
(4) all executions of double-stops, chords and rapid
arpeggio are based on the above forms of normal fingering;
as a consequence, the chords which are easy to play are
either in open positions or contain open strings ;
(5) perfect fifths are played with one finger on two
adjacent strings;
(6) all "artificial harmonics" are played with the thumb
'
'
(pressing) and the third finger (touching) .
Examples of fipgering
Figure XVIII.
•
0
0
0
0
•
0 4
-• .• � r
0
'
I
/
0
I
I[
:m:
I'
t
JiL
••
••
4
3
I
:l,
J
.%, '
44 .
All the forms of bowµig, practical for the
violin, are practical for the •cello .
As the bow of the
'cello is proportionately shorter than that of the violin,
the composer must use long durations of s ingle notes and of
passages, emphasized by the bow moving in one direction,
with discrimination.
One of the rcello •s features are harmonics.
to long strings, they are very sonorous.
Due
For the same reason
pizzicato is richer on the •cello than on the violin.
Pizzicato glissando (marked: pi�z. and a slu'r over the two
'"
'
bordering notes) , an effect similar to Hawaiia� Guitar is
v ery colorful.
See "Four Hindus Songs" for voice and
orchestra by Maurice Delage •
Glissando of harmonics is another effect to which
In order to· execute it, touch
• cello 1s particularly suited.
the string at the nut and move the finger quite fast toward
the central knot of the string.
harmonics from high to low ones�
This causes a sequence of
Moving in reverse, i.e.,
from the central knot to the nut, causes the reversal of the
sequence of ha.:rmonics ..
There is no need to move the finger
beyond the central knot as the string has an axis of symmetry
for all the lmots, and such a . finger movement would produce
the same harmonics as when moved from the central knot back
to the nut.
The resulting effect has great color value and
has been used by the best orchestrally minded compose�s .
sounds like a rapidly moving arpeggio of a large seventh
chord.
•
It
-
45.
A combination of such harmonics glissando
played by several • cellists on different strings, and also
in different directions if desired, produces a shimmering
effect of fantastic harps, subtle and fragile •
•
The adopted notation of this effect is as
follows (black notes show the main points of the actual
sounds, as all the points cannot be expressed in our musical
notation) .
Figure
.0
XIX .
0
0
•
,_
See Rimsky-Korsakov •s opera "Christmas Night".
D. Double Bass (Contrabass)
Double bass (corresponding to the antiquated
violone) has four strings usually.
•
Figure XX.
The y are tuned by fourths .,
Tuning
,
...••
�
�
,i
�
.....,...-,--
-�
•
- -
,_
�
?F
0
46 ..
In XVIII and XIX Centurie� when a lower note was
required, the bassists re-tuned the lower string to E, to E �
or to D.
In the XX Century the problem was solved by the
addition of a fifth string (below the fourth regular string ) ,
•
which is tuned in c.
All large symphonic and operatic
organizations have at least half of tr1eir string basses
equipped with five strings.
High positions are more seldom used on the string
bass trlan on any other stringed-bow instrument •
•
follows.
The range, practical for orchestral' uses, is as
Double bass always sounds one octave lower than
the written range.
0
Figure
XXI
-= I
-
r
-"Rf\N€,E :
(�
-
J
-,
,,t
+
Plz."L L11W111"
All forms of bowing and effects, including the
use of mutes, pizz. glissando, harmonics and harmonics
glissando are perfectly suitable for the bass, and are
unjustly neglected.
Fingering technique ru1d intonation are the chief
difficulties of this instrument.
• Tl1e fundamentals of fingering are as follows .,
47.
u
Figure XXII .
...
0
••
f
"
"
-e
...
....
..
I'
i
.. '-1
'
0
••
-' -
+
�
,...
"'1
•
""" '�-
The last case is quite difficult and must be
avoided, unless absolutely necessary.
As higher positions require closer spacing, it
is easier to play the bass in the higher positions�
•
The
purity of intonation increases, but it becomes more and more
difficult to get a pleasing tone r
It i s best not to use the
double-stops at all as they sound muddy in low register anyway.
However, certain forms of pedal and strata can be used.
Figure XXIII .
Example:
•
-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chords are impractical, even when possible.
Some
composers have written solo passages and phrases for the bass
and exceeded on such occasions the establi shed orchestral
range.
See Rimsky-Korsakov • s opera "Coq D • Or", �rhere a
bass solo is written in the alto (C) clef.
There are very few outstanding .bassists who appear
48 •
u
•
as soloists.
Probably the best of all bassists in the whole
history of this instrument is Serg�i Koussevitsky (at present
the conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra) .
When
Kou.ssevitsky was younger he frequently gave recitals on the
Double Bass, as well as played concertos wit h his own
orchestra (which was known as Koussevitsky Orchestra in
Moscow, Russia).
As the bass literature is limited,
Koussevitsky often played his own transcriptions of concertos
written for some other neglected instruments.
Thus, one of
his favorites was Mozart • s concerto for a Bassoon (Fagotto)
with orchestra.
Radio City
Russia .
Music
Another accomplished bassist (at present with
Hall Orchestra in New York) also comes from
His name is Michel Krasnopolsky.
In Russia, when
giving recitals, he played among other things my own �Suite
for a Double-Bass a:rid Piano" composed in 1921.
When used as a solo instrument, Double Bass must be
tuned a tone higher
becomes a bass in D.
a11d
read a minor seventh down.
It really
Some of the outstand ing violin-makers in
Italy made a few excellent basses , which are slightly smaller
in size aild permit the tuning one tone higher.
better in tone too.
They are
In Jazz double bass is used mostly as a percussive
instrument: it is plucked (pizzicato). and slapped ..
It is
interesting to mention that in Jazz playing, where virtuosity
on some orchestral instruments leaves the classical way of
playing far behind, the development of the performer • s
49 .,
technique influenced mostly the right and not tbe left
hand and, even then, not in bowing.
This particular form of virtuosity produced
some proficient performers.
There are two duets for piano and double-bass
on ColUDbia records: "Blues" and "Plucked Again n (Columbia,
Jazz Masterwork, 35322) , with Jimmy Blanton (bass) ·and
Duke Ellington (piano) .
u
•
-
•
50.
u
Lesson CCLXIII.
I. The Flute Family
•
WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS
•
A. Flauto Grando (Flute)
This instrument, kno,vn as a "large flute" in
. �uxtaposition to the smallest member of t h is family known
as a "small flute" or Flauto Piccolo or just plain "Piccolo"
(wh ich is �s bad as "cello") , is a D- instrument without
transposition.
This means th at, whereas its acoustical scale
·
(the natural tones, i. e. , the tones produced by modification
of blowing, and not b y using holes and keys) is D, the tones
sound as they are written.
•
Tones which are not in the
acoustical scale are produced by means of six holes and a
number of keys (depending on the make) .
Gradual open ing of
the holes from the bell up shortens t h e air column and
produces the tones of the natural major scale in D, i. e. ,
d, e, f f, g, a_, b , C,:# . The following d is th e second natural
tone:.
(harmonic) from which the scale can be e xecuted further
in a similar fashion.
by means of keys.
All ch romatic intervals are filled out
The two (in some makes, th ree) tones below
the fundameµtal d are executed by extending the bore with a
pair of specially designed keys, which close instead of
opening the holes.
Being cylindrical on t h e outside, the pore of a
flute is an inverted cone inside (with a very slight deviation
from a cylind�r, though).
The shape of the bore and the form
51.
of exciting the air column directly (through an open hole),
instead of through a mouth-piece of any kind, attributes
the flute its whistle-like tone-quality.
•
Figure XXIV .
•
T
t
ij��MONIC!.
. -A
0
.I,;
3
lI
J,
"- l
-
- ti- - 4
, ,2
I
As the consequence of this construction, the
•
easiest keys for the flute are D, A, G, etc. , i. e., keys
adjacent to D through their signatures.
F lute is partic ularly suited for scalewise
passages (whi ch can be played at any practicable speed) ·and
close forms of arpeggio
(E, ) . The finger technique is
highly developed among flutists.
All forms of tremolo
legato (arpeggio of couplings), trills, rapid grace-note
scalewise passages are typical of a flute.
Another flute specialty is the multiple-tongue
effects: double, triple and quadruple, which as the name
shows, are accomplished by a rapid oscillatory tongue move
. ment.
There is no special notation for this effect, and
•
•
52.
G
every flutist knows it should be used when there is a
rapidly repeating pitch.
It must be understood that the term "legato"
•
•
(indicated by a tie) , as applied to flute as well as to
all wind instruments (including woodwind and brass) , means
a group of notes executed in one breath.
•
As non-legato,
staccato etc. are also executed in one breath for a group
of notes, legato means one breath without a renewal of the
tongue-attack •
•
The increase of the quantity of attacks augments
'
the volume of the instrument and should be used in all cases
when the natural volume is weak, yet harder blowing may
0
•
produce the next natural tone.
As a special device for both
increasing the volume and giving the tremolo effeet frulato
(flutter-tongue) is used.
In order to ex ecute frulato
(which is only practical in the high register) it is necessary
to pronounce (in a whispering manner) a continuous rolling of
frrr.
The notation for frulato is : - for the period of
duration of the note.
Because blowing on 'the flute is immediate, the air
column in the bore i s quite unstable.
sensitiyity of registers�
characteristics.
This causes great
Each register has its own dynamic
The consideration of the latter is of the
utmost importance in orchestration.
Co�temporary manufacturers
are constantly seeking a scientific solution for equalization
C
of registers.
To put it plainly, each register, unless very
53.
skilfully handl ed, sounds like a somewhat different
instrument.
When one melodic group occupies more than one
register, the contrast between the registers becomes very
undesirable. Some old-fashioned minds think it· desirable
.
to have nearl.y each tone in a different flavor, because they
believe it attributes individuality to the instrument.
This
assumption is psychologically wrong, because each sound does
not sound per se, but in connotation with the preceding and
the following sounds-
•
Imagine a book where each character
is printed in a different type.
It certainly attributes
.,
individuality to each letter, but at the same time makes the
process of reading far from being pleasurable.
•
This argument about uniformity of tone-quality
throughout the entire range is the main weapon of attack
.
against�lectronic instruments, because such instruments have
a much superior qualitative stability than the woodwind
instruments.
In other words, electronic instruments are
condemned by the reactionaries, whereas Ya·sha Heifetz tries
hard to make it unnoticeable when his bow changes from one
string to another (which i s equivalent of the ch�ges of
registers).
•
.
Figure XXV .
of the Flute
Range and Registers
- Low
�EptllN\
:3' +-.IL.-
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LL._
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tt � �
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54.
-
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..,..,
Loll.P,
tJof lltlf!.EASAII("
SHRII.I..
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B. Flauto Piccolo (Piccolo)
•
F.P. is a diminutive flute and pos�esses all
the main characteristics of the large flute.
••
Its acoustical
scale is also in D, but its range is much more limited.
lower register is practi cally useless, except for some
humorous effects.,.
The
The agility of this instrument is truly
remark"able, and particularly so in the scalewise passages.
Figure XXVI.
•
Range and Regi_sters of the Flute Piccolo
(Sounds one oc tave higher than written)
r-
,,
- -I
I
I
•
I IMPRACf'ICAL
I ANP J)IFFltLIL.T.
I
I
I
I
u
e)
c. -Flauto Contralto (Alto Flut l
s) :
pe
ty
r
(o
es
iz
s
o
tw
1n
s
me
co
F .C .
F)
(used
more
than
in
G
n
1
o
t
l
a
r
t
n
o
C
( 1) F l .
"
" F (used less than in G)
"
(2 )
Both types are used a great deal in operatic and
symphonic scoring.
extendin
The main value of the alto flutes lies not in
the ran e below the ordinar
flute
but in
ivin
a better gu&lity and a more stable range corresponding to the
•
....
o.
low register of flauto g r a n d
fourth
a
perfect
sounds
Contralto
in
G
Fl .
•
•
written range.
lo,ver
than
the
)
s
e
n
o
t
(5 semi
fifth
sol.lllds
a
perfect
in
F
Contralto
Fl.
range.
semitones) lower than the written
(7
tone quality.
better
the
tv10
has
a
of
The first
Figure XXV I I •
•
Range and Registers_ of the Alto Flutes
-----�_;;,__
FL.e.
'" �- FLJ
l� F
.SOIi
-
-
--
_- -
+
•
�
56.
There is no need to use high register of alto
instruments, as the regular type gives a better tone
quality.
Other types, such as Bass Flutes, are obsolete
They produce tones 1n qua) ity somewhere between
nowadays.
. ocarino and an empty bottle.
•
•
'
.
•
•
•
•
,
57.
Lesson CCLXIV.
II. The Clarinet (
S ingle-Reed) Family
A. Clarinetto (Clarinet) in B v and A
This instrument has a cylindric bore, which
causes, according to Helmholtz, the appearance of only odd
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . • • ) harmonics.
are absent.
The pair-numbered harmonics
This situation creates a gap of 18 semitones
between the fundamental and the next (i.e., the third)
appearing harmonic.
Somehow the designers of this instrument
succeeded in reducj.ng the number of holes and keys considerably (usually 13) though theoretically it would be required
to have all the 18, in order to produce a chromatic scale
G
covering the gap.
•
From the performer 's angle, clarinet is a
difficult instrument to master.
However, this should not
worry the composer, as accomplished clari netists are really
in abundance.
The main consideration concerning the composer
is that while approaching the third harmonic, the tone of the
clarinet weakens for about the last 6 semitones.
The
register between the fundamental and the thir d harmonic is
known - as chalumeau (French, from Latin "calamus" - reed;
originally - a single reed instrument, with a built-in reed,
now obsolete; probably the ancestor of clarinet).
A
special tone-qual ity, in addition to the usual one, and
which is hard to get, corresponds to the chalumeau register
C
and is known as subtone (soft, delicate and tender).
•
58.
Starting with the third harmonic and going up, the tone
cha nges noticeably. Of course it is
quality of a clarinet
•
the task of an accomplished performer to neutralize this
difference.
The sound on the clarinet is produced by
•
blowing into a detachable mouth-piece, to whicl1 the reed is
attached.
A complete chromatic scale is produced by the
various types of keys and by holes which are covered by
fingers (by special keys on the bass clarinet) .
The clarinet
ists of American dcµice orchestras are able ,to produce a
\.
glissando ( i •.e., continuous pitch modulation between two
This is accomplished by the ambouchure
frequencies) .
(which usually means "the assumed position of lips combined
• •
with lip-pressure«).
Symphonic and operatic clarinetists
are not trained to play glissando.
All clarinets are usually written as cl arinets
in c .
Under such conditions, the scale of natur al tones
appears as follows:
Figure XXVIII.
1
•
C
ti
-
5
-
.f. l"'}
'l
a.
'f
f.£
-
1t
0
f�
•
59.
The clarinet in C was discarded a long time ago,
as its tone quality was not as satisfactory as that of the
•
V and in A (some contemporary manufacturers
clarinets
in
B
•
make an extra hole and key to compensate the lower semitone
on the B '- clarinet; thus it can play the parts written for
the A- clarinet; in some other instances, mechanical adjust
ments have been made in order to obtain a combined version
•
of the B � and the A clarinets) •
Though some individual performers get far beyond
•
the common range, there is a silent international code of
''
ethics, by which composers limit triemselves by the written
_g_ of the second octave.
•
Figure }QCIX .
Range
and Registers of the Clarinet
•
•
-
-
.,,�cr
�
...-.1,..-;;0;;;;:;
,.J:
1
Riett , MEILovJ,
S'fA &� ;
PyNftlttlt.. RAil4'E�
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�wlllt( 0( L�ltl�I.,
.PE.lie.Rf£ FRI>"' :"-�t11>,1J'1 � 1lfE'
' i"1t1s Po,..,-;
1 ,AAAAa'Ett OF Mll!>tt. ,
: J>y'tlAlll\•t W!I\IC�A!,-,�; : �NP J)INA� •e s;
I
ttr � 1 ;
IIAI.S1"A&L£;
fro/ �s
: �.!AMI<, R�..E.:
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I
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1H1l : kLOw 1H,!» Poi.tr;
1
: PRo.J>uce
I FLEXt &U: t>'t'NAIW\ll. I
I
: RAftlC.E:+
I
� ff
SKILL FIJL
,-r
�F01tME1ts d.Afl/ �TILL
f,
&11'" 4e,41::�ALLY
I� EASlf� 1o Pt..p,y
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: l)'J'HAMIC. �AIJ�e : �
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7 -ff
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•
•
•
60.
For the clarinet in B P- flat the above table
sounds one tone lower.
This means that the composer must
write his parts for the B� instrument one tone higher than
he expects to hear the actual sounds�
For instance, the
pa�t which sounds in the key of C must be written in the
key of· Q.
Thus clarinet in BV acous_tically is a Q instrument,
as its fundamental tone (by sound) is £•
•
Likewise the parts for the clarinet in A must
be :,tri tten, three semi ton.es_ pj._gher than they are expected to
sound.
Thus the above table sounds three semitones lower.
Parts expected to sound in the key of C must be written in
. -
the key of E �.
Thus clarinet in A acoustically is a C ::tf:
instrument, as its fundamental tone (by sound) is c -.il'. ·
It was believed in the XIX Century that the B'
clarinet represents the masculine qu�ity, that it is more
substantial but less delicate than the feminine quality of
the A- clarinet.
However, today skilful performers can
P
obtain both characteristics on B - clarinet.
Considering the quality of manufacture and the
skill of con temporary performers, we can say that clarinet
can play practically everything.
Its specialities are:
rapid diatonic and chromatic passages, tremolo legato and
trills.
Staccato is preferable in its soft form.
Arpeggio
of the E , form is very grateful both upward and downward.
B. Clarinetto Piccolo in D and in E f;, .
The first instrument (D) is used in symphonic and
61.
operatic orchestras and the second (E�) , in the military
bands .
Both these instruments are inferior in their tone
quality, as c ompared with the clarinets in B� and A .
F -:#=.
The acoustical range of the D- clarinet is in
It is written one whole tone lower than it i.s expected
to sound.
The parts which a.re written in the key of � 11,
sound in the key of c.
•
•
G.
The acoustical range of the E V-c larin et 1s in
It is written three semitones lower than it is expected
The parts which are written in the' key of A, sound
in the key of c.
to sound.
Except for the tone-quality, the piccolo clarinets
can be favorably compared with the regular clarinets: their
mobility is as high.
c. Clarinetto Contralto (Alto Clari net)
a.pd Como di Bassetto (Bassethorn) .
Clarinetto contralto is usual ly an E .,, but sometimes
an F instrument.
Thus it should be written a major sixtp and
a perfect fif,th higher, respectively, than the sounding keys.
This instrument is so constructed that its lowest written note
•
is .£ below the usual �.
Its tone-quality can be described as
more "hollow" than the tone of a regular clarinet .
clarinet.
Corno di bassetto has a narrower bore than the
It looks somewhat like the miniature version of tl1e
clarinetto basso (bass clarinet) .
"reedy" than that of the clarinet.
•
Its tone-quality is more
Bassethorn is an instrument
in F: it is written a perfect fifth higher than it sounds .
Today basset horn becomes more and more obsolete : alto clarinet
in E l, takes its place.
D. •Clarinetto Basso (Bass Clarinet) in B; and A
The A instrument is seldom used outside of Germany.
Both th ese in struments sound one octave below their respective
regular clarinets.
This means that the B P- basso is written a
major ninth higher than it sounds; A- basso is written a minor
tenth higher than it sounds.
•
treble and bass clef are used.
•
In German scores often both
T h e rule is that w h en using the bass clef, write
one octave below t h e correspond.i.ng note ·or the treble clef.
•
That is the transposition of sound from the bass clef is only
•
a whole tone, or a tone-and-a - h alf down •
Both these instruments are manufactured with and
e to c.
v,ithout the lower extension from -
The B'- basso without lower range extension is used
by the dance orch estras, whereas the B P- basso which reaches
the lower .£. (Q►- by the sound) is used in symphonic and
operatic scoring.
These instruments have quite a sinister tone in
their lower register.
It is wise not to write for the bass
clarinet above d of the second octave.
Bass-clarinet possesses
somewhat less mobility than the smaller clarinets.,
There is also a contrabass or Eedal clarinet, a
monstrous affair which has to be suspended on special stands
•
63.
and which is very hard to play.
Richard Strauss used one
in his "Electra", and only Germans c ould play this instrument.
It sounds one octave below the bass clarinet (it is also i n
B �) and has an awe-inspiring quality.
III. The Saxophone (Single-Reed) Fami,ly
Saxophone is one of the numerous creations of
Adolf Sax, an eminent instrument designer of XIX Ce ntury.
This instrument is a crossbreed of oboe (due to it s conic b ore)
and clarinet (due to its single-reed mouth-piece) •
•
Very few composers used this instrument in the
•
'
XIX Century (one of them was George Bizet) and , eventually it
•
became quite obsolete, with the ex ception of the military bands
•
in Fran ce and Belgium, which have been using saxophones widely .
The original saxophone family consisted of the
instruments in C and in F.
Soprano Saxophone in C
Alto
Tenor
Baritone
Bass
n
"
"
"
"
n
F
C
" F
C
.American manufacturers rejuvenated interest toward
.this instrument.
They succeeded in c onstructing saxophones of
a more improved • design .
American saxophones as played by
American saxophonists introduced a whole new style of music
and musical execution •
.American-made saxophones are so flexible that any
)
64.
type of part can be written for it.
Rapid scales, arpeggio,
tremolo legato, trills, staccato, glissando are all possible
and grateful on this instrument.
The last two or three
decades produced a number of outstanding virtuosi,- many of
whom are Negroes, and many of whom are skilful improvisers .
It is due to the wide influence of Jazz and Jazz-playing that
saxophone manufacture became a considerable industry.
The standard dance-band combinations customarily
use 4 or 5 saxophones.
•
In some instances this quantity varies •
It is quite common that a saxophonist is at tpe same time a
clarinetist. Som e of these performers are equally as good on
both instruments.
•
In the earlier days of American Jazz, (and also in
some instances in Europe) there v,ere some ensembles consisting
only of saxophones, but they have not survived.
The .American family of saxophones is tuned in
•
Figure XXX.
(please see next page)
65 ..
u
I
(Fig. XXX)
•
Saxophones
Written range: For all saxophones
c5'"
.
2
�
i
jJ
J
••
'
-�
-
Spunding range :
�
�
�-
•
�
Soorano in B ti,
A t.n in
'T'
R
-- n
....
.
•�
•
10..
1n H p
The soprano and the bass are seldom used today.
clef.
All saxophone parts are written in the treble
There is no noticeable difference of registers in
a good performance, and it is for this reason that we have
omitted the range subdivisions.
0
66 .
Lesson CCLXV.
IV. The Opoe (Double-�eed) Fam�ly
A. Oboe
Oboe is an instrument of ancient origin.·
In its
primitive form it has been in wide use thro ughout Asia.
of the oboe 's ancestors was the Hellenic aulos, which was
One
used for the expression of passion.
Blowing thro ug h a narrow opening of the flatly
folded reed (usually called �o uble reed) requires strong lungs
and a peeuliar technique of breathing.
Some· of th� Asiatics
(Persians, for example) can play the oboe-like double-reed
instruments with uninterrupted sound (like the Scottish bag
•
pipe) .
These performers usually hold a reserve supply of air
in one cheek, which is exhaled, i.e., blown into the reed,
while the lungs are inhaling the future supply of air.
The contemporary oboe has a conic bore, which
characteristic stimulates the appearance of the full scale of
natural tones (harmonics).
Without additional keys, oboe acoustically can be
considered an instrument in D, like the flute.
the flute, is not a transposing instrument.
Oboe, like
Most oboes of
European manufacture have £ of the small octave as its lowest
tone.
American-made oboes re- a ch £1:i', immediately below it.
-
It is customary not to use tl1e eboe above f of the second
octave.
Due to its construction oboe is a slow-speaking
instrument.
Only passages of moderate speed are possible on
67 ,.
t his instrument.
Oboe is valued mainly for its character
istic tone-quality, which can be described as flnasal" and
"warm".
All types "of passages are possible, including
•
tremolo legato and trills, providing they are executed at a
speed which seems moderate compared to flutes and clarinets .,
is the
One of the most valuable characteristics of the oboe
•
versatility and distinct character of the attack forms.
The
legato, the portamento, the soft and particularly the hard
•
staccato appear on the oboe with a clear di�tinction .
The density of the oboe's tone decreases consider-
·
ably in the upper part of its range .,
The low register is
direction of decreasing frequencies..
The most flexible and
somewhat heavy and has a natural volume increase in the
expressive part of the rang e is the middle register .,
tones are thin and shrill ,.
High
Figure XXXI .
•
Range and Registers of the Oboe
(please see next page)
I
C
•
(Fig. XXXI)
-
3
it•
.. pT
.
-•
-
.
c;.,
•
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1DNE.•QuALl1)' �Row�, , .SHRILL foP>Je-�uALrry·;
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l>'J'fllA� ,c.� :
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� A 5ol0 CA,111 � f\
B . Oboe D'Amore
A mezzo-soprano type of oboe which is now
extinct ..
J.s. Bach used it in his "Christmas Oratorio" .,
It was revived by Richard Strauss in his "Sinfonia Domestica".
This is a transposing instrument in A \7.
•
•
•
•
69 ..
Figure XXXII .
Written :
t-e-
IJ
Range of Oboe D • Amore
Sounds :
,,
")
...I
/
0
/
/
0
•
c. Corno Ingl�se (English Horµ)
0
Th e immediate predecessor of this instrument is
oboe di cacchia 1hunter's horn) , now obsolete-.
The contemporary
version of corno Inglese (also known as oboe contralt o)
represents an instrument similar in most respects to oboe,
•
but sounding one perfect fif th lower�
instrument in F.
It is a transposing
•
The middle octave is its best register for an
expressive solo.
The low register is still denser and
heavier than that of an ordinary oboe.
The high register is
seldom used beyond the written & (sounds _g) of the second
octave.
All other characteristics correspond to oboe .
It
is still somewhat slower-speaking instrument than t he oboeEnglish horn is exceptionally suitable for the
expression of passion and suf fering.
it is often given a solo ..
In orchestral scoring
One of the famous solos is in
Wagner ' s "Tristan and Isolde" (Prelude t o the third act) .
•
70 .,
Figure XXXIII.
Range of Corno Inglese
..
WRl
'f
ff�
II
0
'�
�
. P•)�T
J
II
•
I
I
.
-•
Sn"�b�
(�i ) q1'
•
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"""
.
D. Hecke�phone (paritone Oboe)
of German
The baritone oboe is an instrument
'
manufacture (made by Heckel) and in its perf�eted form was
introduced in about 1905 A . D.
.
It has a quality of over
whelming richness and expressiveness.
Richard Strauss used
it first in his opera "Salome"; Ernst Krenek in his opera
"Sprung Ueber den Schatten" ("Leap Over the Shadow") .
It is
an instrument well deserving wide use together with oboe and
•
English horn.
Heckelphone is made to sound one octave below oboe;
it sounds one octave below the written range .,
Its size is so
big that the bell of the instrument rests upon the floor,
while the performer is playing in sitting position.,
The key and hole system is designed to resemble
that of an ordinary oboe, which construction makes it easy
for an oboist to master the heckelphone •
•
As . th e range and the registers of this instrument
exactly correspond to that of an oboe (the lowest tone is ]2,i:r),
•
L
71.
C
but sound one octave lower, there is no need for a table of
range and registers.
V. The B assoon (Double-Reed) Fa mily
A. Fagotto (Bassoon)
The name "fagotto" derives from "faggot": a bundle
of sticks; the name " bassoon" from the associati9n with bass
register .,
Bassoon is an instrument with a very long conic
bore (about eight feet), which is folded upon itself, somewha t
•
in a wanner of letter "u".
....
This u-shape makes it possible to
have a system of accessible holes and keys • . Some of the keyholes produce only one tone (the lower keys) and some, two
r
\._..,
(octave variation by lip-pressure which is easy to produce and
•
which is typical of a bassoon) •
Being an instrument with a comic bor·e and a
double-reed mouth-piece, the bassoon may be considered as a
bass of the double-reed group, i.e ., , it is a natural bass to
the oboes.
The main difference between the oboes and the
bassoon lies in the fact th at the la tter has an additional
section, which extends its low register.
Under the same con�itions of fingering (with the
basic six holes closed), the bassoon is one perfect twelfth
below oboe, i.e., under the conditions which produce the
middle £ on oboe, bassoon produces _g_ one twelfth below.
The range of the bassoon (for all practical
•
•
♦
72 .
,
purposes) begins with the .£� of contra-octave and ends
with d of the first octave.
The b� tone at the lower end
is of somewhat inferior quality than all other tones of the
lov1 register.
•
This instrument 1s capable of mobility
noticeably greater th an that of an oboe.
Various forms of
arpeggio (practically in all expansions), octaves and leaps
in general, as well as rapid scalewise passages, tremolo
legato and trills constitute the versatile· technique of this
instrument.
The attacks are distinct.
Lega'to, portamento,
''
soft and hard st�ccato (the latter being bassoon ' s specialty,
and possible at a considerable speed) c an be executed with
quick changes.
Bassoon parts are written 1n the bass and the
tenor (though alto-clef may be used as well) clefs ,
not a transposing instrument.
•
It is
The dynamic peculiarities of the bassoon require
a particular attention on the part of the composer,
The low
register (from .£� of the contra-octave to £ of the small
octave) is the most powerful part of bassoon's range.
It
weakens slightly toward the mid dle register (this begins
c of the middle
with c of the small octave and ends with -
octave) , which is considerably ·weaker than the low regist�r,
The high register, from £ to _g_ of the middle octave is
somewhat harsh; it becomes very mellow from .&. of the middle
octave to d of the first octave.
Stravinsky is one of the
•
-
few composers who utilized effectively this upper region
(the opening bassoon solo at the begin.ning of the "Rite of
Spring ").
Figure XXXIV!
Rang� and Regis_ters of the !3assoon
J)f.H�f, �•tt:t Q\)Al-rl"(;
Pt"AW\ tC., R.AiJ"e. �
njs/f
I
I
I
B. Fagottino (Tenoroon, Quµitfagott, Tenorfagott)
This instrument (now practically obsolete) was
built a perfect fourth arid a perfect fifth above the regular
bassoon.
Both types are transposing instruments: tenoroon
in E k,, sounding one perfect fourth higher than written and
tenoroon in F, sounding one perfect fifth higher than written.
The tone-quality of these instruments was inferior
to that of the regular bassoon.
74 .
c. Contrafagotto (Double-Bassoon1 Contra
bassponA Contrafagott) .
This instrument still of greater dimensions is
meant to be the lower octave-coupler to an ordinary bassoon.
The engineering quality of this instrument, being inferior
to that of a bassoon, causes i nferior tone-quality and less
exacting intonation.
The tone of thi s instrument is somewhat
dry and does not sound as healthy as the tone of the bassoon.
Its alertness is also somewhat lower.
As contrabassoon is an instrument ouilt
mainly to
'"
produce low frequenci es, it must not (except fQr some special
purpos es, such as creating associ ations of "humorous" or
"painful") be used beyond its regular middle register •
•'
Contrabassoon is a favorite instrument with many
composers.
Its sounding range is one octave lower than
Its lower register is considerably weaker than that
written.
of a bassoon.
Figure XXXV.
•
Range and Registers of the Contrabassoon
,-10
, •
,
•
I
-
�
I
' "
--
1,.£-
:J=
.
�
I
.
�
,.., 4n
�
75.
Lesson CCLXVI.
BRASS (WIND) INSTRUMENTS
I. Corno (French Horn).
Horn is an instrument with a long and rich history.
The immediate predecessor of the contemporary
three-valve chromatic French horn was the so-ealled natural
horn, capable of producing only the natural tones.
All other
tones on the natural horn were obtained by putting the fist
of the left hand into the bell and varying the depth of its
position within the bell.
.
the
The deeper the ffst
... is set,
'
lower the sound of the respec�ive natural tone.
This manner
of altering natural tones is based on the physical principle
of open and closed pipes : an open pipe so unds one octave
higher than the same pipe closed.
As the gradual conic pipe
(which is coiled around itself) extends in a horn to abo,ut
seven feet, the partial closing of this pipe by a fist, at
the bell, lowers the respective natural tone only by one or
two semitones.
This device does not cover all steps
chromatically, as the acoustical gaps between the second and
the third, and between the third and the fourth tones are too
.
,
great. It is for this reason that the parts written in the
XVIII and early XIX Cent uries were predominantly fanfare-like .
Eventually natural horns became obsolete.
Rimsky
Korsakov used natural horns in his opera "May Night" (when
chromatic horns were universally in use) for the sake of his
own amusement, which he called "self-discipline" .
-
. 76 .
In order to read scores by such composers as
Mozart and Beethoven, not mentioning Bach or Haendel, it is
important to have at least some basic information about the
sizes and the transpositionJkeys of the various horns, used
in not su ch a remote past .,
Natural horns were constr ucted in two main size-
groups: the alto horns and the basso horns.
All horns trans
pose downw�rd, i.e., they sound below the written range .,
Alto horns transpose directly to a designated interval,
indicated by the transpositional name of tha instrument.
'•
Basso horns, in addition to the alto transposition, sound one
octave lower (compare with the clarinet in B P and the bass-
clarinet in Bv) .,
The alto horns were construc ted in all chromatic
•
-
keys, e xcept G P •
The se· le ction of a particular horn was in
correspondence with the key in which a certain piece was
Basso horns were used, whe re reaahing of the lower
written .,
register was essential .,
Basso horn parts are known only in
three transpositions: the B P- basso, the A- basso and the
AP-
basso .
There was no octave confusion in interpretation
of the scores, because it was the alto horns that were usually
meant .,
The use of basso horn s was quite exceptional and the
cases where they were used were generally known.
For example,
horns in B�- basso were used in Beethovenrs Fourth Symphony
(written in the key of ��) .
Except for the use of valve s, whic h secure the
t
77.
entire chromatic scale, there is no noticeable difference
in the construction of th,e present day French horns
(including the conic mouth-piece) •
•
Blowing through a long narrow channel creates
such conditions, under which it is easy to "overblown the
fundamental tone of the scale.
tends to break i nto two halves.
That is, the air-column
For this reason, the
official ly recognized range of the horn begins with the
second tone.
From there on, everything is praetical up to
and including the twelfth natural tone.
is seldom used nowadays.
Th.e sixteenth tone
As the frequency increases, the
tone-quality becomes brighter.
•
We shall represent now the scal e of natural tones
for the hypothetical French horn in C.
As chromatic horns
used today are 1h !, the actual sounds appear one perfect
fifth below the written range if the part is written in the
treble clef; when using the bass clef, write the parts one
fourth below the intended pitch, or, stating it differentl y,
one octave below the treble clef.
Thus the transposition of
the French -horn, when written in the treble clef, is exactly
the same as that of an English horn.
Thus:
and
19' ()
3
sound
alike:
e
t
{Q :
u
-
:I
78.
This cutibersome octave-variation as well as the
whole idea of pitch-transposition is a survival of an old
The sooner it will be abolished, the better, as
tradition.
no one gains by this transpositional technique, which is a
constant source of complications and confusion.
During Wagner 's time. and later, chromatic French
horns in E were used together with that in F.
They are
abolished today, for the reason of superior tone-quality
obtainable on the horns in F.
Figure XXXVI •
Scale of Natural tones of the French Horn
W�If'(f..lJ;
8
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'
5ou..JJ)!>t {tfOlt�
I
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r�
F) 4
sI•-•
••
I
,_
-
"
Jo
,2,
I"
i2'
.,
1"
�
'"'
•
Only in very exceptional cases is the French horn
written one or two semitones above the twelfth tone.
The
best tone-quality for solos and cantilena lies between the
fourth and the twelfth natural tones.
Fre11ch horn is a
direct continuation of tuba ' s timbre in its lower portion of
the range.
From its fourth to twelfth tones it acquires a
gradually growing characteristic of lucidity; in its upper
0
79.
range. French horn blends well with clarinets and particu-
larly with flutes; in its lower range, with trom bon�s, tuba
and bassoons.
In this sense, French horn is an intermediary
between the wood-wind and the brass groups.
Chromatic scale, as already- stated, is obtained
by operating the three valves.
All three-valve instruments
are designed on the same - general principle .,
The first valve (operated by the upper key)
•
lowers the natu ral tone by two semitones •
The second valve (the middle key) lowers the
natural tone by one semito ne.
The third v alve (the lower key) lowers the
natural tone by three semitones.
numerals:
•
Valves are indicated by the respective Roman
I lowers by 2 semitones
II
III
"
n
•
n 1 semitone
" 3 semitones
These indication s are not used in scores or parts,
but merely ror reference, when necessary.
The operation of v alves is s uch that while
blowing the written middle £, for example (the 4th tone which
sounds £), and pressing key I , one obtains b p (sounds !! V ) ;
while blowing the same tone and pressin g key II, one obtains
b � (sounds e � ) ; while bl.owing the same tone and pressing
key III, one obtains a � (sounds d , ) .
•
ao •
u
All other intervals, by which a natural tone can
be lowered, are obtained by a combined use of keys controlling
the op_eration of valves.
tpnes;
•
Thus: I + II lowers the natural tone b y 3 semiI + III lowers the natural tone by 5 semitones;
II + III lowers the. natural tone by 4 semitones;
the combination of all th ree keys lowers the
natural tone by 6 semitones.
In the French hor ns of old make there were some
deficiencies of intonation when the com bined_ valves.were used .
They are abolished. in present manufacturi. n g by a special in.ter
locking of air columns in the valves, which device rectifies
•
the corresponding frequency-ratios •
Valves themselves are additional short pipes,
connectable with the main channel by the operation of the
keys.
The latter affeet nhe pistons or the rotary cylinders .
Cylinders are mo re common. on. the present French horn.
far as tone quality is concerned, it does not make any
difference which particular mechanism is used.
So
Thus keys
open the valves, thereby connecting them with the main channel,
which results in the increase of the air column and, for this
reason, lowers the pitch of a giv en natural tone.
As the change of aml:xilu.d:ure (lip condition with
respect to form and pressure) is never as alert as the finger
tecbn�que, it is preferable to write rapid passages, when they
•
I
can be obtained mainly by the operation of keys.
It is f or
this reason that the c omposer must have an exact knowledge
of the key-valve operations.
Even trills and tremolo legato
are possible when they are obtained thro ug h the use of keys.
It follows from the above that the valve system
is acoustically opposite to the hole system, used on all
wood-wind in struments (i.e., on the br ass instruments natural
tones are lowered, on the wood-wind in struments they are
raised) •
•
French horn is a slow-speaking instrument, and
'
<
for this reason speed is not limited by the '�inger-technique
but rather by a slow ton e-production.
All form s of legato
and staccato, as well as portamento, are available and
distinct.
•
•
The breathing process, as applied to this instru
ment, is normal and healthy .
It is possible, for this
reason, to execute sustained tones or passages of considerable
pe�iod in one exhaling.
Contrary to the double-reed practise,
playing French horn is a healthful occupation.
Due to conical shape of the mouth-piece, double
tongue is not within the scope of this instrument.
One of
the French Horn ' s specialties is the dynamic effect of
sforzando-piano (sfp) .
from the 3d tone upward.
This can be performed at any point
French horn has a wide dyn amic
range but its lower part weakens considerably.
French horn is played either •open (indicated as,
o) or •stopped (indicated +).
The fir st indication is not
•
u
82.
used, except as a cancellation of the nstoppedn.
The
stopping is usually indicated above each attack.
•
Mutes are gene,rally applicable to French horns,
but used by the performers only under compulsion : they
think the stopping "will do".
In volume (intensity) , French horn occupies an
intermediate position between the brass (in relation to
which it is weaker) and the wood-wind instruments (in
comparison with which it is louder, particularly when
played high and ff) .
•
•
,
L
•
10
83 ..
Lesson CCLXVII,
II. Tromba (Trumpet)
Trumpet is a chromatic three-valve instrument.
Depending on manufacture, either cylinders (more often) or
pistons (more seldom) are used.
Of all the types of trumpets, the soprano
(ordi nary) type, in B' and A, is used more universally than
the alto trumpet, in G and F, the piccolo trumpet, in D and
E ', and particularly the bass trumpet, in E P and B !'.
A. Tromba (Sopran4>., Trumpet) ±n B � and A
Of these two designs, preference is given to the
B P - trumpet in the U.. S. A. , while in Europe both tunings are
.G
used for the respective parts.
B �- trumpet exclusively.
Americ an dance-bands use the
Some of the B�- trumpets can be converted into
A - trumpets, by drawing a special telescopic slide which
lowers the range of the instrument by a semitone ..
The hypothetical trumpet in C is transposed two
or three semitones down respectively (like the clarinet) .
Its scale begins with the second natural tone and
ends, for all normal purposes, with the eighth.
Outstanding
trumpeters are able to blow the ninth, the tenth and even the
twelfth tones,
In this case the use of the piccolo tw umpet
becomes unnecessary, as the tone of the regular soprano
trumpet is preferable.
C
on the·other hand, the composer must
not rely on the presence of such a virtuoso in every orchestra,
•
•
84.
even playing the part of the fir�t trumpet.
Natural tone·s are produced by the ambouchure and
the tones between them by fingers, i.e., by pressing the keys
which control the valves.
The trumpeters of American dance
bands produce many chromatic variations and glissando by the
ambouchure.
eighth tone.
These virtuosi very frequently go beyond the
In writing "improvisedfl solos (which in most
.
cases are actually written out and studied) it is best to
test the individual performer •s range - first .
Figur e XXXVII .
The Range of the Tr umpet
'
10
"
•
�:
•
'
4
11-
:2
.
�
'
rI
--
I(;}
.
With the combined use of al l three valves, the
lowest tone of the tru mpet is: f., (in C) , e (in B�) , e � (in
A) .
Tones below the second natural tone are generally weak.
The natural intensity grows with the increase of frequency,
but skilful performers have a considerable control over the
dynamic range of this instrument.,
u
The cup-shaped mouth-piece of the trumpet, the
shape of the bore (slightly deviating fr9m a cylinder to a
cone) and the length of the bore make the transmission of
the tongue attacks more immediate .,,
For this reason the
double and multiple tongue attacks become one of the main
assets of the trumpeter ' s virtuosity (as in the case of a
flute).
Rapid finger-w ork on the keys permits to execute
trills and tremolo legato at a high speed, providing both
.component pitch-units are executed through the same natural
tone (both pitch-units may be keyed, or one '�f them may be
natural) .
(_)
All forms of attacks are well defined on a
trumpet: legato, portamento, so ft and hard staccato .
Scales and even arpeggio can be executed at a
considerable speed.
•
�-� one time the trumpet was considered as mostly
suitable for a performance of signal-like and fanfare -like
music, b ut this viewpoint (considered even by Rimsky -Korsakov)
.
is completely outmoded.
The prestige of this instrument has
been amazingly restored and height ened by jazz.
B. Cornette (Cornet) in B � and A
4•
of
'
cornet a
This instru ment also known under the French name
pistons (i.e., a cornet with pistons; the name
implies chromatic possibilities} , strictly speak ing, does not
belong to the trumpet family.
Its bore is more conical than
t�at of a trumpet; this makes its tone-quality more mellow .
86 •
•
For this reason it is considered a more lyrical instrument
than the trumpet.
Today, however, the skill of performers
is so great that accomplished trumpeters are able to imitate
the sound of a cornet on a trumpet and the sound of a trumpet
on a cornet�
instruments.
In most cases .American cornetists use the B�
It is also customary that a trumpeter plays
both trumpet and cornet.
Cornets are still made mostly· with pistons,
while trumpets, mostl y with cylinders.
The scale of natural tones, the range and the
whole mechanism of execution is practically identical with
ijhat of a trumpet.
•
It is generally considered being somewhat less
alert than the trumpet.
Tone-quality on both trumpet and cornet can be
altered by means of a mute inserted ' into its bell.
The use
of the mute is marked "con sordino"; the cancellation of
this effect, "senza sordino".
American jazz created a real mute-a-mania,
resulting in a great variety of new mutes (straight mute,
cup-mute, harmon-mute etc.) .
Another device, closely
related to mutes is the "hat" (usually made out of metal, in
the shape of a trench helmet or a derby).
It is used for
. glissando "vow-vow" effects (acoustically, a modification o f
the open pipe into the closed pipe).
87 .
Thi s instrument is the prima-donna of a brass
band, but i t found it s way into symphon ic , operatic and
•
part i cularly dance scoring .,
C ., Tromba pic cola (Piccolo Trumpet) in D_tfil� E J,
Thi s i nstrument i s considerably smal ler in si ze
.
than the ordinary trumpet. The D-type is mostly used in
symphonic scoring (for example, Stravinsky ' s "Sacre") , but
relativel y very seldom.
with the brass bands.
The E U- type is much more common
The to ne-qualit y of both i s dec�dedly inferior
to that of a regular trumpet.
The transposition of thi s instrument is analogous
·
to clarinet p iccolo, i.e., two and three semitones up
respectively.
Thus the e ighth natural tone (c) sounds d and
e ► respectively.
As th i s instrument requires an excessive
lip-pressure it is very difficult to produce any tone above
the eighth.
For this reason there seems to be no practical
advantage in the further use of thi s instrument.
D. Tromba C9ntralta (Alto Trumpet} in G• and• F
This is a very useful instrument not only for the
extension of the regular trumpet 's range downward, but also
(and mainly so) for obtai ning better qual ity tones within the
lower reg ister (from the third natural tone down) of a
regular trumpet.
Ri msky-Korsakov made a very extensive use of
this instrument in his operas.
•
88.
It is a softer instrument compared to the B �
and A - trumpet .
The lowest possible pitch on the alto trumpet is
the written ri- (three keys pressed: all valves open) , which
sound cf'" (on the G � trumpet) and b (on the F - trumpet)
respectively, i.e., it transposes down, like the alto flute.
It is quite customary that the performer of the
third trumpet part doubles on the alto trumpet.
E. Tromba Bassa (B�ss Trumpet) in E V and B P
0
Strictly speaking, this instrument is not a
trumpet but a miniature tuba and, therefore, ' belongs to the
so-called saxhorn family (the dominant brass group of the
military bands).
•
•
Wagnerian tuba •
It is also known as tenor tuba or
In many instances the parts written for this
instru,ment are played by the French horns.
The E ' instrument sounds eight semi tones below
the written range; the B P instrument, one octave below the
soprano B� trumpet.
Undoubtedly this instrument becomes obsolete.
There is also a bass trumpet in C - basso which
is very seldom used.
range .,
It sounds one octave below the written
•
89.
Lesson CCLXVIII .
III. Trombone (Trombone)
The type of this instrument which is commonly
used today is known as Tenor-Bass Trombo ne.
Trombone is one of the most remarkable i nstru
ments in the orchestra.
Its design is based on an ingenious
yet very simple principle: it has an air column, whose le ngth
can be varied by means of a slide, which is a part of the
instrument proper.
As a result of such construction trombone
produces a complete chromatic scale carssting of natural
tones on.ly,
•
C
•
The pulling out of the slide increases the
volume of the air-column and produces the standard seven
position,s.
The positi on with the slide pulled all the way in
is considered the first position.
The opposite positio n,
with th.e slide pulled out (to the limit, but still producing
a continuous bore or air-column, as the slide can be pulled
out completely, disjoining the instrument into two individual
sections) is considered the seve nth position.
All other
positions are between t he, two extreme positions .
Thus the
slide actually converts seven natural instruments into one
chromatic instrument.
As different positi ons possess different
acoustical characteristics we shall describe each position
individually.
scale:
The first position has tl1e following natural
•
•
•
90 •
Figure XXXVIII
--.
.,I
••
".I,.
�
41
I, 0
po
I
'
4
,,,..
I
8
,
"
/0
e
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It,
'rhe second, t:ne t·o1rn and the toiirt'h pos1t1ons have
similar acoustical characteristics.
•
1
8
0
g
10
•
5 ,,----
:m:
•
....
-
4
-
8
'f
Jo
.
42,
Tones produced by the fundamental are often called
pe�al tones.
•
Beginning with the fifth position, the air-col12mn
breaks up into two halves, thus making the production of the
fundamental impossib le.
The fifth, the sixth and the seventh positions
•
have the following natural scale:
-
0
91.
(Fig. XXXVIII, cont.)
I'll
8
•
., ,...--.....,� �S·:.... _.:,.._ _:..::IO�---=-'=--- -- __
= =tt:rr =
lI:
f>
f---4::-fr-_
••
== ==
•
4
••
u
I> ,,---'""'I,
10
•
It is easy to see that after the natural tones of
all seven positions are combined, there appears to be a gap
between the second natural tone of the seventh positionv and
:
the fundamental of the first position
�----•
r.
- --
-
L.,..
L, --
--
,� �
Thus, the following pitches are not available on
the trombone of this type:
-•
0
•
- -e-
'?5"'
�""'
.,
92.
The ability to produce the natural tones above
the tenth depends upon the skill of the performer.
It is
advisable, in writing orchestral parts, not to exceed the
eighth tone, reserving the use of the ninth and the tenth
for exceptional effects.
To compensate the absent pitches within the gap,
an instrument with a special valve has been designed.
This
valve, operated by a string attached to a ring controlling
the opening of the valve, lowers any natural tone by five
semitones (perfect fourth).
For this reason a trombone
'
'
trombone
supplied with such a device is known as a tenor-bass
. -
with a fourth valve.
f
By means of this device, d*, d �, c
and c �
can
be obtained from the second natural tones of t he III, IV, V
•
and VI positions respectively.
Figure XXXIX.
The slide
•
positions
Pitches produced by
'
-
,_
the open valve
The lowest pitch of the gap (b ') stil.l remains
unobtainable, due to the fact that the air-column of the
•
93.
seventh position, augmented by the valve, becomes so great
that it breaks itself into three thirds of the total volume,
thus causing the third natural tone:
slide
impossible
valve
( o)
It follows from this description, that not only
the entire chromatic scale is available, but that some of the
•
pitches are even duplic ated: they appe ar as the different
natural tones of the different slide-positions.
The
preference in such cases depends upon two conditions:
(1) the positional distance from the preceding to the
following pitch; if such positions are too remote and
there is a possibility of obtaining the same pitch on a
different natu r al tone of a nearer position, it is the
positiona] distance that becomes a decisive factor;
(2) the difficulty of producing higher natural tones in the
lower positions as compared to lower natural tones in the
m���,·
highe r positions; for example •
than
I[q
! is easier
-,
94.
Trombone has a cup-shaped mouth-piece.
Its
tone-quality greatly depends on the manner of playing.
Some
trombonists have a bold, powerful tone, some have a mellow
•
lyrical tone and some have both .
The character of tone
greatly depends upon the form of vibrato (tremulant).
forms of vibrato on the trombone are vibrato by pitch
All
(obtained by oscillating the slide within a small pitch
interval,
as on the stringed-bow instruments) , while the
trumpet vibrato is vibrato by intensity and is caused by the
variation of ambouchure.
• '
Trombone is an instrument of a sli'ding pitch par
excellence, easily comparable to the • cello.
For a long time
composers misunderstood the true nature of this instrument.
•
American jazz recaptured the real meaning of a trombone,
though in many instances dance-band trombonists overdo both
the vibrato and the sliding , which renders a sugary character
to the whole performance.
Glissando, which was received in the ' hearing of
•
Stravinsky rs scores as an innovation, in reality is very
basic on a trombone and today became not ouly a common-place
resource, but also a source of annoyance.
From the technical standpoint any glissando can
be executed only on the same natural top� , while the slide is
being gradually moved through its continuous (that is not only
the positional but also interpositional) points .
0
All other
forms of glissando are made by the variation of ambouchure and
95.
are not standardized.
A glissando can be performed either up or down.
It is sufficient to indic ate a glissando by showing the
starti.ng and the ending pitch of it, and connect the two by
a straight or a wav y line:
r"'\
t.
I
,,, -
V
I-
-pi-
The term gliss. may be also added above the part,
if desirable .,
..
The passage just illustrated is executed on the
eig hth natural tone, while pulling-in the slide from the VII
to the I position: gradually.
If a passage falls on the different natural tones,
it
it is impossible to execute/in continuous, i.e., glissando,
form.
For example:
r ,.
.,,,
•
-
y
•
The execution of this passage is impossible
because �v can be only III3 , while if _g_ is the third natural
tone, its fundamental would be �, and there is no such
•
J
96.
u
position on the trombone.
Mutes were very seldom used on the trombones in
the symphonic music of the past.
However, the development
of jazz led to a very exten sive and diversified (including
"hats") use of mutes, in the same manner as it is being used
on the trumpets.
Jazz also, besides raising the standards or
per formance on this in strument, created some outstanding
virtuosi, among whom the greatest arti st is Tommy Dorsey,
particularly because of his unsurpassed tone-quality.
Some trombonists are capable of producing (as a
special effect in the higher pos itions) simultaneously the
u
fundamental and the third harmonic (actu.ally sounding as a
•
In addition to this some jokers sing the fifth
harmonic).
harmonic, thus obtaining a whole triad.
Trombone parts are usually written in the bass and
the alto clefs, while the XIX Century compos ers preferred.the
tenor clef.
Today it is practical to use treble clef for the
higher register, as all trombonists can read these four clefs.
The tenor-bass valve trombone is usually employed
as the third trombone in symphonic scoring, but is seldom
,
used by the dance-bands .
All other types of trombones, such as alto trombone
(in E �, sounding a perfect four th higher than written) or
·
perfect fourth lower than
trombone
('in
F,
sounding
a
bass
written) became completely obsolete.
\__,,
./
•
97 ..
u
The old three-valve trombones of various types
were found unsatisfactory in their tone-quality , which was
•
decidedly inferior to that of the natural (slide) trombone ..
IV. Tuba (Tuba)
This instrument is also known as bass-tuba and
belongs to the sax-horn family, which is fully represented in
the large brass bands.
The tuba, which is used as the standard instrument
of the symphonic and the operatic scoring , seldom appears in
the dan.ce bands.
Dance bands use mostly the- E i, susaphone
bass (a three-valved instrument, commonly used in infantry).
Tuba, acoustically, is an instrument in F, but does
not require transposition.
Its parts sound exactly as written.
Due to traditional use of a quartet c onsisting of
•
three trombon�s and a tuba (usu ally the part of a tuba is
written on the same staff with the third trombone) , c omposers
developed a habit of associating tuba with trom bones.
However, tuba comes closer to French horn than to trombone ..
Its pipe is conical, as that of a French horn, while the
trombone ' s pipe is cylindrical until it reaches its bell ..
The mouth-piece of the tuba is closer in shape to
,
•
that of the trombone, not of the Frenc h horn •
fo
· llows :
The scale of the natural tones of the tuba is as
Figure XL.
8
u
•
(.e. )
,
0
98.
•
It is advisable to use the first six natural
tones, resorting to th e eighth tone only in exceptional c ases.
The tone-quality of the French horn in the high register of
the tuba is preferable and it bears
the latter.
&
c lose resemblance to
Tones below the fundamental are dif ficult to
execute as there i.s a constant danger of overblowing the
•
It is best not to write below d which lies three
fundamental.
semitones below the fundamental.
As there is an interval of a whoie octave between
the fundamental and the second tone, the desi'gn of tuba
requires four valves.
These four valves are evolved according
to the standard three-valve principle, the fourth valve being
capable of lowering a natural tone by 5 semitones.
In
addition to this, tubas used in symphonic and operatic
orchestras have a fifth valve.
The purpose of this valve is
to give an acoustically more satisfactory semitone-valve for
the lower register, as t�e secorid valve is not sufficiently
•
large •
Tuba of the type being described here has a valve
operation on cylinders.
Pistons are to be found in an
instrument serving similar purposes in the in fantry bands,
the ophicleid, which is carried ov er the shoulder while
being played.
Thus the valve arrangement on the five-valve tuba
is as follows:
,
I lowers the natural tone by 2 semitones
V
II
11
"
III
n
n
"
fl
"
"
IV
V
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
IT l
"
T1 3
n
n 5
"
'' 1 large semitone
Combined application of these valves produces any
desirable interval between the first and the second tones .
Tuba is a slow-speaking instrument.
Good intonation
is on e of the main difficulties of this instrum ent.
asset of tuba is its rich tone quality.
The main
Al� forms of attack
are available, but tuba is particularly suite� for long sustained tones and slow passages in general.
No mutes and no
special eff ects are used on the tuba.
•
The Russian composer Shostakovich used, in his
First Symphony, two tubas, instead of the customary one.
As
intonation on the tuba is usually less precise than on the
other brass instrument�, this score, at least wh en being
perform ed in Rus sia, created considerable difficulties during
rehearsal : one tuba is bad enough but two b ecom e unbearable .
,
,
100.
Lesson CCLXIX.
Arpa (Harp)
•
The origin of harp leads back to antiquity.
In
the bas�rel�efs of ancient Egypt, dated as far back as 2700
'
B. C. , court orchestras consisting mostly of flutes and harps
are represented.
In the last two or three centuries harp
underwent many modifications.
Some manufacturers built
chromatic harps and some, diatonic.
The co11temporary harps
are diatonic instruments with a triple tuning.
The contemporary harp is original-ly tuned in a
natural major scale in c F .
octave.
There are seven st.rings to each
All octaves are identical.
The main feature of the
contemporary harp is a set of seven pedals, which control the
tension of strings.
The mechanism of pedals is devised in
such a manner as to allow the modification of the same name
string throughout all octaves.
Thus, by the first step
pressure=position of the c �- pedal, the pitch of all the c v -
strings becomes c �.
By the second pressure-position of the
c P- pedal, the pitch of all the c ► - strings becomes c4" •
Similar mechanism affects the remaining six name-strings.
The step-pressures are independent for each pedal.
While one
pedal is put into its first pressure-position, another pedal
may be put i nto its second pressure-position.
This is
possible because all pedals have an independent operation.
Pressure-positions are retained by the instrument until they
are changed by the performer.
This is possible because each
101.
pedal has a locking arrangement in the form of two
inverted steps:
Figure XLI.
-
ll - po sitiAm-
(o'¼�)
�� ( f-i-wA; � )
�ro�t--t
- �/.; CJ'\'\, ( Su-o .-i d.- ��)
Looking upon the harp from above the pedals
appear in the following arrangement:
Figure XLII._
Accomplished harpists manipulate the pedals with
great dexterity and can rearrange up to four pedals per second.
0
Harpists, the same as pianists, find the different
)
102 .,
strings by tactile distance-discrimination .
However, in
some cases, strings of red color are used for all the o 11 , s
and of blue color, for all the g � • s .
This helps to find the
remaining strings .,
Harp is played by either plucking a string, or a
•
group of strings, by the individual fingers:
(1) in sequence (arpeggiato), which is the normal form of
execution of ohords on a harp;
(2) simultaneously (non-arpeggiato), which should be
indicated by this term.
In addition to this, harp is often played glissando, which is always a chord-glissando and is executed by
u
sliding of one of the fingers over the strings.
•
As glissando
affects all strings within its range, the problem of tuning
glissando-chords becomes of major importance.
Glissando can
also be executed in octaves and other simultaneous intervals .,
As a special effect, octave-harmonics can be used
on a harp.
This is executed by touching the string at its
nodal point (geometrical center) by the palm and plucking by
the finger of the same hand .
If the interval is relatively
small, each hand can produce harmonics in simultaneous
intervals.
Dynamically, harp is a delicate instrument.
It
gains in volume considerably through the use of glissando .,
This effect can be executed in various degrees of the dynamic
L
range (from pp to ff), depending on the pressure exerted over
'
103.
the strings and the speed of sliding over the strings:
increase in speed and pressure results in the increase of
volume ,,
It is important for the c omposer to understand
that when the pressure-positions are alike for all the strings,
only natural major scales in the following three keys result
therefrom: C l1, C �, C 4t".
Original position: c I, - d· 1, - e v - f t, - g P - a'=' - b�
First pressure-position: c � - d )J - e 9- - f ., - g1' - a '1 - b� - .,
•
Second
"
tr
:
c t- _ d #- _ e • - f f:- ... g if _ a:#- _ b�
All other scale-arran.gements require< re-arrangement
of the pressure positions.
u
It would be of great advantage to the c omposer to
•
know that all the 3� forms of � (13), tabulated in the
Special Theory of Harmony, are at his disposal.
And any
tonal expansions which derive from the above master-structures
do not require any rearrangement of the pressure positions.
This
is possible bec ause none of the above · S' (13) contain intervals
greater than 3 semitones, w hioh satisfies the pedal mechanism
of the harp � when tuned in E0 •
As harp is a strictly diatonic instrument, it is
desirable to use it as such.
Quick modulati ons, containing
several alterations, are quite impossible on this instrument.
Many large scores contain two· harp parts (used alternately for
this purpose) , in order to ac complish groups of modulating
chords ,,
•
/
•
1 04 ..
The parts of harp, like that of the piano, are
written on two staves joined by a figured bracket .,
in use are the common bass (F) and tr·eble (G) :
The clefs
Figure XLIII.
right-hand part
left-hand part
•
''
Instrumental forms suitable for the harp �e quite
similar to piano forms.
only at a moderate speed.
V
Octaves, in each hand can be executed
Chords with wide intervals for both
hands are more difficult than on the piano ..
Close positions
a»e preferable to the open ones, though bass can be detached
from the upper structures.
Many effective passages can be
accompli shed by the alternation of both hands.
Here the
•
composer's inventiveness may bring many fruitful developments.
From the viewpoint of a thematic texture, harp can
be looked upon as an instrument similar to piano, i . e . , it can
perform melody (in its various instrumental forms) , harmony,
accompanied melody, correlated melodies and accompanied
counterpoint.
In orchestra it is frequently used as et coloristio
instrument, which is due particularly to its capacity to
ex ecute effective and diversified forms of glissandi (upward,
•
105;.
downward, combined, rotary, etc.)
There is a wide selection of struc tures which can
be executed glissando (such structures often contain repeated
pitches, caused by the adjacent strings enharm onically tuned;
but the speed of the slowest practical glissando is sufficiently
great not to make these repeated pitches apparent to the ear).
There is an easy way to determine whether a certain structure
permits the performance of a glissando: if the structure does
not contain maJor thirds, built on the degrees of a natural
major scale in B b, then glissando is possible .
In other words,
the structure in question shal l not contain the following
simultaneous intervais :
Figure XLIV,
•
•
•
Thus the fo·11owing chords are possible in glissando:
because they do not contain the major thirds referred to in
Fig. XLIV.
On the other hand the following chords are impossible
for the reason that they contain such major tlllrds, as
classified in Fig. XLIV:
J
106 .,
u
p
•
The principle of major thirds of the B�- scale
saves the composer the troub le of empirical verification .,
For �xample, let us see why d -
*
f -
a - c
is
impossible in glissando:
d � -- d �
e P -- is impossible. to stretch to f :#= .,
In other words, e� - string would b� in the way,
u
even if other strings could be tuned to th e given chord .,
On the other hand a chord like c - d - f - a� is
•
possible :
•
ep
f�
g�
b�
---,-
--
e 1f (r11)
f�
g1f ( aV)
b4f (c�)
There are several different forms in use, by
which a glissando can be indicated.
Here are the most
typical ones:
•
107.
0
Figu�� XLV .
•
•
•
•
The tuning of pedals in general, particularly when
parts are harmonically simple, does not require any indication.
Cautious composers, however, often indicate the pedal changes.
Fig__ure XLVI.
For example:
��.�
b. -
.
.�-- -
0
I
_f
i
j
-fl
-
1
""'
'
�
'
-
..•
•
,,,, . '
•
•
108.
In the fourth measure b' and e; do not require
any change in tuning as b� = c P and e 9 =
f �.
Octave harmonics, which are the only
ones used on
thi s instrument, are indicated by zeros above the notes, which
notes should sound as harmonic s in the same octave as written.
Figure XLVII.
0
0
0
0
•
The forms of attacks on the harp correspond to
that of a piano, i .e., legato, portamento, staccato, but the
difference is less distinct than on the piano.
The bas ic timbre of harp resembles clarinet, which
is due to the method of playing (i.e., finger-pluc�ing, instead
of a hammer-attack, as on the piano; piano strings when played
by fingers , without the medi\im of keys and hammers also sound
like the harp).
Harp blends well with flutes and clarinets .
The composer must not forget that harp is a self-sufficient
solo instrument of a diatonic type.
In the orchestra, of course, it is mostly used as
an accompanying and coloristic instrument.
It is also extremely
effective as a semipercussive rhythmic instrument.
•
109 .,
. ,
Sometim�s harp, doubling wood-wind instruments,
produces a more transparent equival.ent of the pizzicato of
stringed instruments.
Carlos Salzedo, who is probably the most accom
plished and the most versatile harpist of all times, has
invented a number of new effects for this instrument.
He
and some of his accomplished st udents (he teaches at the
Curtis Institute in Philadelphia) are capable of executing
these effects.
.
:
=
Organ (Pipe-Organ or its electronic 8Ubstitutes)
Pipe-organ is a more self-sufficient instrument
than any other instrument known.
This is due to the quantity
of tones which can be simultaneously produced and their timbral
•
variety.
The number of different tone-qualities depends on
the number of stops which can be used individually or in
combinations.
More expensive organs usually have more stops,
but price also determines the quality. Organs range from
two-manual to five-manual models, in addition to which every
organ has a pedal keyboard, generally meant for productio n of
lower pitches.
The dynamic range of a pipe• -organ is fully
comparable with that of a full symphony orchestra.
stages ..
u
This instrument underwent many evolutionary
The latest an d most spectacular type of pipe-organ is
the large theatrical organ.
•
This type of instrument is
•
110.
furnished with a very diversified selection of stops
(including many percussive effects, like xylophone, chimes,
etc.) not excluding all the essential stops of an ecclesiastic
organ.
There are a number of pipe-organs in the world
which can be justly considered masterpieces of acoustical
engineering.
•
As organs widely vary in design, number . of manuals,
selection of stops etc. it is impossible to give a detailed
description of a pipe.a..organ.
Basically, however, all pipe
organs possess certain general characteristics which are in
'
common. Some of these generalities are essential for the
�
composer to know.
(1) The amount of pressure exerted by the performer upon the
keys has no effect upon the intensity or character of sound.
(2) Forms of attack are effective: legato, non-legato,
staccato are well pronounced •
(3) Physically, the tone is generated by a pipe or a group of
pipes, which are often built-in at a considerab.le distance
from the console; this produces an effect of delayed action:
a very important detail to bear in mind, while using organ
in combination with other instruments.
(4) Tone-qualities are classified into groups, representing
timbral families: the stri ngs, the flutes, the reeds, the
chalumeaux etc.
u
Each family has a number of distinctly
different stops (e.g., tone-qualities) .
/
111 ..
(5) Each stop has a set of pipes covering a definite range;
organists look upon ranges and registers as represented
by the l ength of respective pipes.
Thus they say: a
4 ' string stop, or an 8 ' reed stop, or a 32' pedal stop ..
The longer the pipe, the lower the pitch.
Certain timbres
are available only in certain registers, while others
cover the entire (or nearly the entire) range.
(6) The massive tone-qualities characteristic of the pipe
organ are due to single, double, triple etc. octave
couplings.
These couplings are executed by pushing the
coupl.er-keys.
Under these conditions, an' organist can
produce a powerful and massive tone by using only one
finger.
•
(7) Volume (the intensity of sound) is controlled by a special
pedal.
Thus gradual dynamic changes are possible.
A
sforzando-piano (sfp) effect is also available on the organ.
(8) Comp.osi tion of stops for the performance of a given piece
of music is known as regi�tratioµ.
The latter is seldom
done by the composer (unless he is an organist) .
Even
when the composer or the editor of organ parts indicates
the registration, it is quite traditional for the
performer to change the indicated registration to one of
his ovm choice.
(9) It is customary to mix the stops belonging to diffe�ent
timbral families as well as couple them through several
octaves.
112.
(10) In addition to this, there are so-called organ
"mixtures", which are pre-set combinations of various
couplings�
When such mixtures are used, one key pressed
by a finger produces a whole chord structure of one or
another type,
Thus melodies may be played directly in
parallel chords.
In some of the organs bu ilt in Germany,
in the second decade of this century, mixtures produ cing
some less conventional chords were introduced (in one
instance, the mixture added to £ produced c - d;f-
rl-
b) .
It is important fo r the composer 'to realize that
ais a consequenee of couplings and mixtures, accompanying each
individual note, what reaches the ear of the listener
(including the organist himself) is quite different from what
•
is written on paper.
Not only the respective octaves and
registers (in the general sense of this word) can be different
than in writing, but they also can be accompanied by whole
sets of new pitches, which even do not appear in the parts.
Often symphonic, operatic, oratorio and cantata
scores contain an organ part.
The above-described characteristics of this instru
ment make it very difficult for the composer to use organ in
an orchestra, or a mixed vocal-instrumental combination,
properly. as often the principle of clarity as a necessary
quality of instrumental and vocal scoring conflicts with the
natural tendencies of this instrument.
For this reason organ,
in most scores, is either mis-used or plays a purely decorative
)
113.
part.
In the old scoring org an was used, according to
ecclesiastic tradition, as a duplication of the choir, and
its part was often written merely as a figured bass, which
•
•
the organist had to f ill-in.
This can be found in the scores
of the le ading composers of XIX Century .
•
Another important characteristic of the organ is
its tone-qua.lity with respect to vibrato.,
Organ can play
non-vibrato or a vibrato by intensiW (some instruments,
particularly in the string-stops have also a mechanical
vibrato of beats, produced by simultaneou s pitches wh ich are
set at sli ghtly different frequencies).
For th is reason,
organ vibrati are mostly of a different ty pe from orchestral
•
vibrati.
Simultaneous use of both often creates conflicts
and discrepancies.
For more details see nAcoustical Basis of
Orchestration" .
Organ parts are mostly written on three staves:
one for pedal, one for the main, lower, manual (known as
great) and one for the Upper manual (known as swell).
Figure XLVIII .
•
114.
Lesson CCLXX.
4
-
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
This group of instruments is much more diversified
than all other groups combined.
The term "electronic musical instrument" can
define any instrument wtere electric current generates sound
directly or indirectly •
•
There are t,10 basic subgroups of electronic
instruments.
The first subgroup constitutes :Ip.struments where
sound (i.e., sonic frequencies) is generated� by varying the
capacity of an electromagnetic field, created by two currents.
Instruments invented and c ·onstructed by Leon Theremin are
•
based on this principle .
They include three basic models:
(1) Space-controlled Theremin (also known as Victor-Theremin,
later: R. C . A . Theremin) .
(2) Fingerboard-Theremin .
(3) Keyboard-Theremin .
Of t h ese three types, the first acquired far
greater popularity than t he other two models.
Recitals are
being given by various performers on this instrument.
the first composer to use this instrument in a solo
(concertizing) part with a symphony orc hestra.
I was
The composition
was named: "The First Jtirp honic Suite" and was performed by
Leon Theremin as soloist with the Cleveland Orc hestra, in
0
•
Cleveland and New York in 1929, with outstanding success.
•
In
115.
u
1930 a realization of my early drealDs came through.
I
scored, rehearsed and produced together with Leon · Theremin
and 13 other performers, two programs presented at C arnegie
Hall in New York, in. which an ensemble of 14 space-controlled
theremins was presented for the first time.
Space-Controlled Theremin
Each musical instrument displays some character
istics for which it is known.
The chief characteristics of
the space-controlled theremin is its extreme adaptability not
orily to pitch and volume variation, but als.o to the form of
vibrato.
In this respect it is so sensiti ve' that the
pleasantness or beauty of tone largely depends on t�e
performer.
·
..
In order to obtain a "beautiful tone n on this
instrument the performer must know what physical character
istics make a tone "beautiful".
These can be briefly described
as a combination of the vibrato frequency with the depth of
vibrato, i.e., the pitch variation between vibrato points.
As thip text is meant for the composer or orchestrator, there
is no need to elaborate on this matter further.
In 1929 I
wrote "A :Manual for Playing Space-Controlled Theremin", where
these matters are discussed in det ail.
See also "The
Acoustical Basis ofOrchestr ation" described in this theory.
Pitch on the theremin is controlled by the right
hand, which is moved toward and away from a vertical rod
(antenna).
The spatial dimensions of pitch intervals vary .
with respect to total space range, which is adj ustable either
116.
indiv idually or for each performance.
In other words,
pitch is varied within the spatial boundaries of the electro
magnetic field.
Depending on the stature of the performer
and the length of his arms, spatial range may be practically
adjusted (tuned by a knob control) somewhere between one and
three feet.
The electromagnetic field can be imagined as a
three-dimensional invisible fingerboard.
It is so sensitive
that a slight move on the part of the performer affects the
Spatially, intervals contract with 'the increase in
pitch.
frequencies, i.e., moving the hand toward tl\e right antenna
(which is a physical generality; it works the same way on the
C
regular fingerboards, air columns etc . ) .
Not having a fi.xed
length f.ingerboard, the thereill:inist faces, as it proved itself
•
to be the case in many individual instances, a greater
difficulty in pitch control than any string-bow performer .
Yet some performers, who were not even professionals on any
instrument, could master the pitch-control problem in about
two weeks.
Their reaction was that you control pitch mostly
by "feeling of distances", that you play as if you were
•
singing.
•
I am not offering any description of the basic
timbre of this instrument, as each model had a timbre of its
own.
•
Cj
Vaguely they all resemble somewhat a combination of a
stringed-bow instrument (w�en bowed), at its best, if not
better, and of an excellent human voice singing everything
on the consonant "m", which or course has its own basic
/
117 .
acoustical characteristics.
The left antenna of this instrument serves the
purpose of controlling the volume.
The left hand moves
vertically toward (decrease of volume) or away from (increase
of volume) the loop-shaped left ant enna.
The intensity range
can be also spatially adjusted by turning a knob, just as in
pitch-control.
This permits any degree of subtlety in
varying the volume, similar to the right antenna with respect
to pitch.
Playing this instrument is a task in human coordination of both hands and arms, moving through two spaceooordinates.
It would b e just to say that this instrument
is much more delicate and sensitive than any human being who
•
has played it until now•
People with good coordination and sufficient sense
of relative pitch turned out to be better performers than the
eminent musicians. · Leon Theremin and his assistant, George
Goldberg (also an engineer), proved this to be so.
The composer can have at his disposal the entire
audible range, if necessary, and any volume, as sound is
amplified electrically.
All forms of attacks are available�
Space-controlled theremin is a monodic (i.e.,
producing a single tone at a time) instrument par excellence
and, therefore, particularly suitable for broad sustained
u
cantilenas, pedal points, etc.
Rapid passages of any kind
•
118 .,
can be executed by an accompli shed performer at speed
comparable to that of an oboe.
One of the first models of this instrument had
a knob contact for producing attacks.
By pushing the knob
by a finger of the left hand abruptly, one could produce the
most abru.pt forms of staccato, following at any desirable
speed.
The Philadelphia Orchestra, through the
initiative of Leopold Stokowski, its music director, used a
specially built modei of theremin.
This instrument served
the purpose of coupling and reinforcing orcl\estral basses of
various groups.
•
en immense volume amplification •
•
0
It had a pure (that is, sinusoidal) tone and
It is best not to compare the theremin with
•
any other standard orchestra instruments, but to look upon it
•
as the first instrument of the com ing electronic era of music,
having its own characteristics and being co�ceived and
designed along entirely new principles of sound-production
and sound-control .
dynasty.
It is the first child of the electronic musical
Its first model dates back to 1921, when Leon
Theremin demonstrated it in Moscow before a conference of
electrical engineers and inventors.
its early experimental stage.
At that time it was in
In the U . S. A. it was manufactured by R. C.A.
Manufacturing Co., Cam den, New Jersey.
I
119 .
Fingerboard Theremin
u
This instrument was designed and constructed with
the purpose of supplying violinists and • cellists with an
electronic instrument, which they could learn to play in a
very short time.
Some violinists and 'cellists played it
•
with great success.
This instrument • s main part is a cylindrical rod,
about as long as rcello 's fingerboard .
While being played,
The part which
it is held in a position similar to 'cello .,
is touched by the fing ers of the left hand (to which procedure
'
all tt1e string-bow performers are accustomeq.) is covered by
celluloid.
Production of tone results from the contact of a
finger with the celluloid plate.
•
'
similar to that of a •cello.
Thus pitch-control is very
Volume is controlled by a
special lever , resilient and operated by the right hand.,
The higher the pressure upon the lever, the louder the tone.
This form of dynamic control allows not only gradual variations
of intensity but also accents and sforzando-piano.
All forms
of attacks are available by direct contact with the fingerboard.
Though the manner of playing this instrument more
resembles rcello than violin, violinists found it as easy to
play.
The range of this instrument is adjustable, i . e.,
the same model can be tuned in high or low or both registers.
The tone-quality of the fingerboard theremin resembles an
u
idealized 'cello tone (i . e . , one which is deprived of
inharmonic sounds, which usually result from the friction of
120.
horse hair over sheep r s guts, w hile bowing) and is more of
a constant than on the space-controlled model.
Tl1e usual
type of 'cello vibrato gives perfectly satisfactory resµlt.
The basic timbre is quite close to the double- reeds (nasal) .
Of course timbre and other characteristics of
this instrument could be easily modified.
•
Some engineers in
Europe, after Theremin, constructed similar instruments whose
outer design resembled violin, 'cello and bass. Of course
Leon Theremin thought it very funny, because the dimensions
•
and the shape of an electronic fingerboard ,instrument have
nothing to do with its range or registers. '
The fingerboard theremin is a monodic instrument.
u
One of the advantages of having such instruments
•
in t he orchestra is tone-quality, w hich can be suggested to
an engineer or a manufacturer ; another, is its range which
offers a great economy: a passage, star ting on the - •celli
and transferred to the violins, can be executed on one
instrument and by the same perfor mer.
Keyboard Theremin
Keyboard theremin is a monodic instrument, w it h
a standard piano keyboard.
It is a dir ect predecessor of
the solovox, manufactured by the Hammond Organ Company today.
Physically, though, solovox does not belong to the first sub
gr oup, as piano strings, electromagnetically inducted, are
t he original sound-source.
Keyboard theremin, ·on the other
han d, physically operates on the same principle as other
121.
theremin instruments, i.e., variation of capacity of an
electromagnetic field.
This instrument was designed with the purpose
of supplying the keyboard performers with an instrument
which they could play without any additional training, yet
to have an instrument possessing at once $Uch features as
economy of space, any pre-conceived tone-quality, well
expressed forms of attack, .regulated forms of tremulant,
fading effects with vibrato automatically performed (like the
•
Hawaiian guitar) , automatically preset var1-ed degrees of
staccato etc.
The business end of the Theremin �nterprise was
not properly handled.
·U
•
As a result of this, there are not
man·y space-controlled models to be found today, only a little
over a decade since they were built, not speaking of the
fingerboard and the keyboard theremins, of which there are
very few, i f any, left,
Leon Theremin built a number of other electronic
instruments, among them various types of organs with micro
tuning and variable timbre-control (in the design of which I
participated) , but these instruments mostly served the
purpose of �esearch and have never reached the attention of
the public at large.
The purpose of my directing the attention of the
composer to these short-lived models is to show where lie
the future stages of the field of orchestration, as there has
122.
never been any doubt in my mind that the present standard
(non-electronic) instruments will be soon outmoded and
substituted by the perfected electronic models.
In this regard the composer will be confronted
with new approaches and techniques of orchestratio n.
He
will have to think acoustically and not in terms of violins,
clarinets, trumpets etc.
So this is just a note of warning.
The second subgroup of electronic instruments
uses conventional sources of sound (strings, bars,
oscillating membranes etc.), but they are �cited by means
of electromagnetic induction and amplified through a loud-
speaker system.
u
While Theremin•s models were entirely revolution
•
ary and constituted a decidedly radical departure from all
the existing notions of designing musical instruments, the
'
instruments which I refer to as the second subgroup are
decidedly a result of compromise, lack of vision and immediate
commercial considerations.
It will be just to say that the
theremin instruments are more refined as an idea (and · for this
reason the instruments of the first subgroup, eventually, will
resurrect and last longer, in their future improved forms,
while the instruments of the second subgroup will be
considered too crude in comparison, and will die out the way
the player. -piano.· did, when the perfected radio left no room
for its existence), though not sufficiently perfect in the
actual operation, while the existing models of the second sub-
J
123.
group are well designed and built, are reliable in operation
but are based on old-fashioned and often wrong notions as to
what a musical instrument should be.
The instruments of the
second subgroup: are manufactured and sold on a mass production
consumption basis.
They are w idely used today, particularly
in the field of radio and dance music.
The instruments of the sec ond subgroup can be
generally named by their old original names, with the addition
of the definitive "electrified".
•
Thus we can name such models
as electrified piano, electrified organ, el�ctrified guitar, etc .
The history of these instruments leads far back
to Thaddeus Cahill, who constructed, in 1897, the "So�nd
Staves ", a clumsy instrument w ith oscillating membranes,
.
effected by electric current. *
As electronic instrum ents of all types are in an
early stage of their development, and as the present models
may soon become outmoded and obsolete, I shall offer only a
brief description of the models which are most in use today,
and only such a description from which the composer can get
information and ideas valuable per se.
Electrified Piano
This instrument consists of an ordinary piano and
a system of electromagnetic induc tors connected with an
amplified sound system.
There are different designs of this
*For more historical detail see my article "Electricity, the
Liberator of Musi c " in the April issue of Modern Music
Quarterly, published by the League of Composers in 1931
(Vol. 8) •
•
124.
instrument, but ·the resulting sounds have most characteristics
in co mmon.
piano.
This instrument is usually known as electronic
In the U.S.A. the Miessner piano is more known; in
Germany, the Bechstein (famous firm, manufacturing the best
pianos ever built) .
Some of the electronic Bechsteins are
also in use in the U.S .A.
The main feature of all such instruments is the
conversion of a regular piano into several different instru-
ments.
This is accomplished by a system of various preset
forms of induction.
The two characteristic, extreme forms are:
one, which prolongs the duration of a tone indefinitely and
can even increase the volume of it after the respective key
has been released and another, which has a preset form of
•
quick fading, the sound o� which resembles harpsic hord.
There
are usually various intermed.iate effects between these two
extremes.
At the same time this instrument can be used as
before it was electrified, which is of a great practical
adv antage.
Any accomplished pianist or organist can master
this instrument in a very short time.
Solovox (manufactured by the Hammond Organ Co.)
Solovox is a monodic instrument, devised in a form
of piano-attachment.
electrified piano.
In fact, it is a monodic version of an
The _purpose of this instrument is to
execute melody of a durable and, if desirable, tremulant tone
directly from the piano (with the right hand playing the solovox)
and have the accompaniment played by the same performer, on the
same piano (with the left hand). Whether such a combination is
desirable, is a different matter. But this will be discussed in
"Acoustical Basis of Orchestration".
)
125 • .
Lesson CCLXXI.
The Hammond Organ
This instrument (manufactured by the same company;
designed by Lawrence Hammond) is the most universally
accepted of all the larger t"ypes of electronic musical instru
ments. Hammond organ is a fairly complex piece of electrical
engineering, without being bulk y.
The name "organ n is applicable to this instrument
only insofar as the producti on of durable simultaneous sounds
•
is concerned. Otherwise, every organist or any experienced
musician can tell without seeing the instrum�t, whether he
hears a pipe-organ or a Hammond "organ" . . There is undoubtedly
u
a general difference of all tone-qualities and particularly of
•
the pedal, when this instrument is compared with a " real"
organ.
The term "organ" and the insistence of the Hammond Co ..
on the fact that this instrument substitutes the real church
pipe-organ , witho ut taking up as much space and sold for less
money, was influenced by the sales policy.
This company
simply expected to sell most of these instruments to cathedrals,
churches and chapels.
It turned out to be somewhat of a joke,
as this instrument approaches closer to theatrical organs than
to chur�h organs (particularly with a special tremulant speaker
which, by the way, is not manufactured by the Hammond Co .. ) *
Today dance music and "swing" is universally
played on this instrument and the c ompany, obviously, does not
obj ect, so long as it sells.
¾-Vibratone, manufactur·ed by
Brittain SoundEquipment Co·. , Los Angeles
126 ..
u
There are c ertain basic principles upon which
this instrument is designed and built and they are important
for the c omposer to know.
The following information is not available else
where, as it would be detrimental t;o Hammond Co. to disclose
•
such facts •
The first problem is concerned with the fact that
· o und like a pipe-organ, in its tone
this instrument does not s
qualities.
There are two reasons for this.
One, that it is
due to the type of speaker and the whole sound
system, whic h
'
do not permit the high frequencies (the real \partials of a
tone) to come through .
I verified this fact by connecting the
Hammond speaker with a turntable.
,
sound completely "muffled".
Good high fidelity recordings
The second reason is that the
Hammond instrument is not designed to include certain inharmonic
sounds, which are the constants of many organ pipes.
Whether
such inharmonic sounds are desirable per se, is another matter.
The second problem, which in its causes is
inseparable from the first, is concerned with the fact that
this instrument does not sound like a pipe-organ, in its
emission of sound.
While in the case of a pipe-organ, the
emission of sound is not instantaneous (partic ularly speaking
of the old church organs) , due to the nec ess ary time interval
required by transmissio11 from the keyboard of the console to
the pipes and then to the ear of the listener, in the case of
Hammond organ the transmission of sound is instantaneous, due
•
127 ..
t o the speed of electric contacts ..
This p articular character
istic adds one advantage to the Hammond organ, namely, the
hard staccato of extreme abruptness.
Organists complain that
on the Hammond instrument "the sound appears before you t o uch
the key".
The two problems are closely interrelated.
The lack of real high partials on this instrument is due to
the fact that the mech anical design of the Hammond organ does
not permit the use of better speakers and of a better sound
system, as the high-frequency response woul-d make the key-
c ontacts audible (they w ould click loudly) •.
''
Hence, the
"muffled " tone, as the better of the two evils.
The speed of sound transmission could be ea sily
mo dified by a special mechanism of delayed action.
•
The
inharmonic tones co uld be introduced electronically (such
devices were met with success in the electronic instruments
of the first subgroup type built by Dr. Trautwein in Berlin,
in 1928).
The necessity of br ingi ng about such a
discussion is caused by the fact that there is too close a
resem blance between the Hammond and the pipe-organ and not in
favor of the first .. . While the space-controlled theremin has
a superior tone-quality, when compared with any violin or
'cello, the Hammond or gan is an inferi or organ, as compared
u
to a good quality pipe-organ.
A valuable factor in applying electromagnetic
•
•
128 ..
u
induction to oscillating membranes or revolving d.iscs (as
it is in the case of the instrument under discussion) is
•
the stability of frequencies.
So long as the electric
current is relatively stable, i.e . , of a constant voltage,
the instrument, no matter how long in continuous use, remains
in tune.
This is not true of the instruments of the first sub
group, where w arming up of the tubes eventually affects the
pitch.
The Hammond organ, being evaluated per se and
not in comparison with other musical instruments, must be
•
considered a valuable self-sufficient or aux.:i.liary instrument.
'
The chief asset of this instrument is an acoustical system of
quality variation.
Hammond organ produces pitches of a twelve-unit
•
equal temperament in simple (sinusoidal) waves.
These simple
components can be mixed at random at different intensities,
which results in different tone qualities.
The simple
components are called by the names of the nearest tones of
the natural scale.
Each component is controlled individually
and has eight graduated degrees of intensity.
0
The actual
control is executed by pull ¥1g out the respective levers.
There are nine levers corresponding to the nine components of
each tone-quality.
•
rp1 =
©
@
9
·-·
Figure XLIX.
@
'
-
...,
@
I
129.
The numbers in the circles indicate the enumeration
of levers, as they appear from left to right.
@ corresponds to the sub f'll!ldamental, i.e., one octave
@
below the fundamental;
the subthird harmonic, i.e., one octave below the third
harmoni.c;
@ the
fundamental;
@ the second harmonic;
•
© the third harmonic;
@ the fourth harmonic;
....
ff) the fifth harmonic;
u
@
the sixth harmonic;
@ the eighth harmonic.
,
,
We shall consider such a set to be an acoustical
system of components for production of one tone-quality at a
time.
•,
All present models have two such systems for each of
the two manuals •
A special two-lever (two-component) sy stem
(the fundamental and the subthird) controls the pedal.
•
Once the levers of one sy stem are pulled out into
a certa in preJU'ranged position, such a position mechanicall�
corresponds to a certain push-button.
That is, the pre
arranged combination, produc.ing a certain tone-quality, can be
obtained instantaneously, by pushing the corresponding button.
On the model E of Hammond organ the two systems correspond to
u
push-buttons 11 and 12.
The enumeration of push-buttons is
the same for both manuals�
130 _.
All other push-buttons, enumerated from 1 to 10
control pre-set combinations ..
The pre-set combinations are
the most common stops of a church pipe-organ. However, these
too can be rearranged, by changing some of the wire connections
w ithin the conso le.
The total number of tone-qualities for each manual
individually (which would also absorb any of the pre-set
combinations) equals the sum of all combinations by 2, by 3,
• • • • by 9 out of nine elements (corresponding to nine levers) •
•
according ,to the different
Each combination can be modified
•
"
positions of intensity for each lever (of wruch there are
eight) .
Thus if it is originally one-lever setting, each of
such settings has to . be multiplied by 8.
•
9 • 8 = 72 one-lever settings.
There are thus
For a combination of two l�vers,
the value 8 must be squared; for a combination of three
levers, the val ue 8 must be cubed etc.
•
There is no need in making a complete computation
of al l tone-qualities thus obtainable, as it would take
several centuries to play the m thro ugh. However, fro m a
musical standpoint (i.e., fro.m the standpoint of imperfect
auditory tone-quality discrimination) there are not so many
really distinctly different co mbinations, as many modifications
of the same combination sound quite similar to the ear.
Though components of tone-qualities on the Hammond
organ are not real harmonics, but the tones which approximate
0
them in the twelve-unit equal temperament, the very principle
•
1.31 .
of composing tone-qualities from elements and not from
complexes (like the timbres of standard instruments) has a
great educational value for any student of music in general
and for the orchestrator in particular.
Hammond organ is supplied with some controls
adopted from the pipe-organs .
Among these are the various
couplers, the dynamic control swell-pedal, the tremulant
control, the "chorus" etc.
The range of model E is from .£.
of contra-octave to f::f of the fourth octave (it has the
frequency of approximately 6000 cycles and �or responds to
f
@
for f of the first octave on the keyboard, which
lever
pitch is half-an-octave higher than the highest piano .£.) .
•
Besides being a very diversified self-sufficient
•
instrument, Hammond organ is frequently used in small instru
mental combinations to supply the missing timbres.
The composer will make the best use of this
instrument by acquiring the viewpoint upon Hammond organ as
an instrument whose specialty is production of controllable
and highly diversified tone-qualities, combined with
sufficiently versatile forms of attacks and an enormous
dynamic range, without sacrifice of dynamic versatility.
The Hammond organ keyboard has a very light action,
which permits the production of rapidly repeating tones.
In order to help out the orchestrator with a
method by which he could find the basic timbral families out
u
of the enormous number of possible combinations, I have devised
•
I
•
132 r
0
a simple system by which such families can be instantaneously
arranged and easily memori zed.
Thi s system is based on the
patterns of intensity of the different components in relation
to their lever-scale position (which approximately corresponds
to the frequency position) .
The Scale of Basic Tin1bral Families
on the Hammond Organ
Figure L,
Families:
•
Patterns:
....
1. Uniform intensity of all
participating components
0
•
2. Scalewise increase of intensity
of all participating components
3. Scalewise decrease of intensity
of all participating components
4 . Convex arrangement of intensiti es
of all participating components
5. Concave arrangement of intensities
of all participating components
0
•
*] I'(7J!JP
� :s-
l
�
3 I• $'
�
? 1
......
133.
C
6. Selective pattern of partials of
uniform intensity based on odd-
numbered levers.
7 . Selective pattern of partials of
uniform intensity based on even
• • •
••
- -- numbered
levers.
•
This system helps the orch estrator to associate
•
•
timbral families with the corresponding sea�� of visual
patterns:
u
__? �
c=�
� lii.rvvJ 'ui..r-u-ul
�
, --1 ,:::::::::�J LC:::::='
� c
•
The description of these basic qualities in verbal
adjectives is highly inaccurate.
eliminate it altogether.
For this reason I shall
The best way to get ac quainted with
these timbral families is by practical study of this system
of timbral selection at the instrument.
This practical study
variations within each timbral pattern.
For instance, the
should be accompanied by further investigation of the dynamic
second family may vary t�e angle representing intensities:
•
-===:::::::::JJ
<::-:::::I �
etc., or the fourth fa mily
may modify the form of its convexity:
0
•
""""-=--:::::==>>
,;;,::::
___
;;;,
'-.:..:
.___
7
etc.
.,
-
1
This study will be of extreme practical benefit
to any composer or orchestrator, and particularly in view . of
his study of this Theory of Orchestration .
The Novachord
The Novaehord, another Hammond development, is a
keyboard electronic instrument, on which simultaneous sounds
can be produced .,
The name again is misleading, as "chorqan
means · nstring", and of course there are no strings on this
•
instrument. Here again probably purely commercial consfdera�
•;
... tions� broug�t about the implication. that this instru ment i� a
new version of harpsichord or clavichord.
�en its body looks
quite antiquated; though, of course, the design of the body
has no effect upon the sound, as it is an electronic instrument.,
Novachord has the range of a combined stringed-bow
group.
It has one keyboard of the piano type.
It is supplied
with numerous timbre-controls and attack-controls.
This
instr ument can be j ustly considered an improved and developed
version of the keyboard theremin.
One of the specialties of
Novachord are the attack-forms, where the period of fading can
be automatically pre-set.
The forms of vibrato can be also
automatically controlled.
Dynamic variation is controlled by
pedal .,
The timbres of Novachord resemble more closely
(due to the selective system of attack-forms) many of the
standard orchestra instruments, some of them being of such a
high quality, that only the very best performers on the
•
135 .
original instruments can rival it�
Novachord is a very valuable instrument for
substitution of the missing standard instruments in an
ensemble or orchestra.
As a self-sufficient instrument,
which it is meant to be, it is not quite satisfactory.
The .
reason for this is that it is a simultaneously monotimbral
instrument: only one tone-quf:}.lity can be produced at a time.
As the result of this c haracteristic, melody and accompaniment
sound in the same tone-quality and, in addition to this, at
the same volume.
Thus, when melodY is played with an
accompaniment, it can be singled out only by one means: by
playing the accompaniment staccato •
•
•
136.
•
Lesson CCLXXII.
PERCUSSIVE INSTRUMENT
S
We shall adhere to the following definition of
percussi ve instruments: all instruments, where the source
of sound is a string, a membrane or a bar (often built of
-
different materials and used by direct attack and not by
electromagnetic induction) , b elong to the percussive group.
As a consequence of this characteristic, all percussive instru
ments have a naturally (and automatically, unless extended by
some special devices) fading sound.
Therefore the period of
fading is in direct proportion to the intensity of sound, i .e . ,
to the amplitude of its attack.
u
As all the inharmonic (i.e., noise producing)
•
instruments will be described as percussive instruments,
though some of these really are not percussive, one distinction
must be made clear: while basically sound on · the percussive
and inharmonic instruments is produced by attack, it. • is also
.
produced by friction.
For example, any drum can be played - not
only by a stick or a hand attack, but also by rotary motion· of
the palm of the hand over the skin of the drum.
The same
concerns the rubbing of surfaces of ·the two emery · boards, etc.
Some of the instruments known as self-sufficient,
will be described here specifically as orchestral and, there�
fore, CQ�ODistic instruments w Particular attention will be
paid to their percussive possibilities, which are so often
neglected.
•
137.
Percussive sounds of the instruments, which
originally are not meant to be percussive (such as stringed
bow instruments, when played pizzicato, col legno etc. ) ,
will be discussed in the Technique of Orchestration, in the
chapter devoted to the Forms of Attacks.
We shall classify all percussive instruments into
four groups:
Group one, where the source of sound is a string or a bar
(in metal or wood) ;
Group two, where the source of sound is a .,.metal disc;
Group three,
Group four,
"
"
"
"
"
"
materi als.
•
,,
"
,,
11
is a skin membrane;
are various other
fl-roup_ One
Piano
Piano (grand and upright) is a self-sufficient
instrument, most universally used in our musical civilization.
The range of a piano varies from concert grand manufactured
by Bluethner in Germany (whose range extends itself from g
of the subcontraoctave to £ of the fourth octave) to .Alllerican
made five-octave miniature uprights.
The standard range,
however, can be considered 7 1/4 of an octave, which
emphasizes 88 keys (it extends itself from � of the subcontra
c of the fourth octave) .
octave to -
Timbre of the piano, strictly speaking, cannot be
uniform, as its strings are made of different materials,
138 .,
differently shaped and attacked by somewhat differently
designed hammers.,
The upper register and the middle reg ister
consist of straight steel strings used for each tone in groups
The middle-low and the low r egisters have coiled
of three.
copper strings coupled in pairs.
The lowest register has
single copper strings for each tone .,
It is to be remembered that p iano is a strictly
percussive instrument, as strings are excited by the stroke
of a hammer.
The ton e of the piano fades out very quickly,
as the oscillograph shows.
It is our cultivated auditory
imagination that extends the duration of a piano tone.
Physically, a piano tone has a sharp attack and quick fading .
The right pedal being pressed extends the duration of a tone,
•
as this releases the string, permitting it to vibr.ate.
This,
however , does not exclude the fading of a t.o ne, merely
extending the time period of the fading .
In musi cal terms
this can be stated as : the diminuendo is a constant of a
piano t.one.
Piano gets very quickly out of tune because its
system of double and triple strin gs for each tone makes it
physically difficult to maintain perfect unisons.
We had the descript io� of piano possibilities in
the Theory of Instrumental Forms.
Here we are primarily
concerned with the unconventional uses of piano, as percussive
and coloristic orchestra instrument.
u
Igor Stravinsky made an interesting use of four
139 .,
pianos combined with an ensemble of percussive instruments
'
in his "Les No ces".
The real use o f piano as a percussive instrument
comes mainly through the explorations of Henry Cowell, an
•
American composer, who himself is an excellent exp onent of
Cowell has developed an exact and
his own techniques.
thoroughly developed sys tem of playing piano with the forearms
and fists.
Har�onically this device necessitates the use of
"tone-clusters" (Cowell's term).
Under such conditions piano
is capable of producing an amazi._ng volume, , uncommon to this
instrument .
My record library includes my own recordings of
various Cowell devices, as they appear in his own compositi. ons
performed by himself.
market at present.
Unfortunately these are not on the
There is, however, one Victor record of
Ravel's "Bolero" arranged and played by Morton Gould .,
arrangement Cowell's forearm technique was employed.
In this
For
more details on this subject see: Henry Cowell: "New Mu·s1cal
Reso�roes", published by Norton •
Outside of this specialized field of piano
execution, rapid alternating tremolos of both hands and
using three or more . fingers in each hand can be used very
effectively as a percussive device.
Another device, which Henry Cowell uses, and
which is generally not unknown, consists of plucking the
strings or sliding over them (with the right hand) while
0
pressing the keys silently {with the left).
•
Sliding over a
I
140.
u
group of strings permits the sound to come only from such
strings whose keys are pressed.
harp-like tone.
This produces a delightful
Henry Cowell has also developed a highly coloristic
effect which, so far as I know, he is the only one able to
execute.
It consists of sliding over the strings (in the
back of the piano ; somebody has to press the right pedal down
continuously) and sometimes plucking them.
The sliding is
done across an individual string and produces a most fantastic
character.
Cowell often touches the nodal �oints of a string
in order to get harmonics.
•
He holds the strl.ng at a knot with
He has s- o me compositions,
•
one hand and alides with another.
•
device can be used with great success for wind and storm
like nBansheen, entirely written for this technique.
This
effects, as well as for fantastic and ghost- like effects.
The use of regular piano harmonics was made in
Arnold Schoenberg ' s and my own compositions.
Harmonics are
particularly interesting as a variable timbre effects.
By
silently pressing a key (or a group of keys) which corresponds
to the respective harmonic and by striking the fundamental (or
a group of fundamentals) we obtain an actual harmonic.
This
is due to the sympathetic vibrations of the open string in
response to the partial vibrations of the fundamental (which
is executed staccato).
The effect is that of an abrupt
attack, followed by an extended fading harmonic.
It is very
interesting to note that under such conditions each harmonic
has a different timbre.
-
•
141 ..
Example:
Figure LI.
Cases (a) and (b) in the above Figure have
different timbres�
Higher harmonics (preferably the ones
which are used on a trumpet) can also be use4.
Piano is also capable of producing vibrato (in
single to11es or chords) .
Not the imaginary vibrato, where
a pianist is vibrating his finger while pressing the key
,
(which is physi cally meaningless, as after the hammer strikes
the string no manipulation of the key has any effect upon the
string), but- a real physical vibrato by pitch.
This is my own device at which I arrived by the
following way of reasonin g.
If we silently press the eleven
lower keys (which is very easy tQ do with the palm of the
left hand) , then any keys we strike at an interval of an
octave or more would stimulate the respective partials on the
lower open strings.
As the actual partials slightly differ
in pitch with the corresponding keys we strike, those
•
differences in frequencies produce beats, i.e . , vibrato by
pitch.
I used this device ,Jith great success in the piano
part of my Symphonic Rhapsody "October".
All sounds must be
•
142.
u
produced either portamento or staccato.
They come out with
special prominence on a concert grand piano, as there the
strings are correspondingl y longer ·and, for this reason,
their partials -- louder.
This device oan be appiied either
in long durations or in rapid arpeggio .passages.
effect pedal shall not be used.
•
For this
Piano can be turned, for some special effects,
into a harpsichord and other plucked instruments .,
For these
effects, it is necessa•ry to use paper (particularly wax-paper),
placed right on the strings .,
When the hammer strikes a string
covered with paper, it produces a buzzing effect.
u
For a more
drastic percussiveness plywood boards may be used instead of
paper�
•
I made use of the latter in my background music to
"Merry Ghost ", which is a Japanese play by Kitharo Oka and
where this -effect was used to produce a sound resembling
shamisen (a Japanese pl ucked instrument) .
Finally, piano can be used as a sympathetic
resonating (echo) system.
Piano, when its right pedal is
pressed, is able to reproduce sympatheticall y any sounds
which are in its vicinity, i.e., any such sounds whose air
waves can reach the strings with sufficient intensity.
This
concerns both the harmonic and the inharmonic (noises) sounds.
Whistle into the piano and the response is the
same pitch and the same tone quality.
u
sound continues as echo.
This device can be used specifically
as an echo generating device.
•
Sing, and the same
It is a natural phenomenon
I
143 .
based on the physical pattern-response.
before any animals inhabited this planet.
It existed in nature
claim on discovering the echo.
Nobody can lay any
I suggested this device to all my students of
orchestration, and it was Nathan L. Van Cleave who effectively
used it in the scores made for Kostelanetz orchestra.
This
device can be utilized practically, in the alternation of
staccato of an instrument or a group of instruments (preferably identic;µ ones) and its echo; both should follow in
uniform durations.
Figure LII .
•
•
PtAlfo Ee.Ito
too fast.
The alternation of such durations must not be
Many spectacular effects in orchestration can be
achieved by a combined use of these piano devices.
Harp, Novachord, Harpsichord, Guitar, Hawaiian
Guitar in many cases may be looked upon and utilized as
•
144.
percussive instruments.
This consideration does not require any
additional description.
Celeste
Celeste ("divine") is a keyboard instrument
with soft hammers striking metal bars.,
of precious and semi-precious metals r
These bars are made
It renders this instru
ment a tone unsurpassed in delicacy and tenderness.
The most common design of this instrument
•
includes four octaves (the small, the middle, the first and
the second, usually starting from £) •
Figure LIII .
•
•
••
..Q.
,
The parts for this instrument are written on a
two-staff system, the sam e as piano.
and treble (G) clefs are used .
The standard bass (F)
It is a miniatu re self-sufficient instrument, on
which melody, harmony or both can be executed simultaneously.
Chords in their various instrumental forms are frequently
used on celeste, as it produces a very delicate accompaniment
suitable to melody played on the flute, the clarinet (particu
0
larly the subtone) or in a combination with the harp.
•
-
145 .
u
This instrument may be looked upon as a still
more delicate version of chimes.
It can be employed only
in transparent (low dens ity) textures and amidst low dynamics
(p, pp).
Debussy and Ravel used this in strrument extensively
in their scores.
Chaikovsky made some effective use of it in
his "Nutcracker Suite".
Glockenspiel (Orchestra Bells; Campanelli)
This in strument is known in two basic models: the
hammer and the keyboard types.
The hammer orchestra bells are played somewhat like
the xylophone, i.e., by striking the bars with two hammers
(usually made of wood) held in both hands.
The bars, of semi
precious and common metals, are built-in into a portable
•
closing box.
The bars are arranged in two rows, similar to
the arrangement of black and white keys on the piano.
Often
even the musical names of the individual pitches are engraved
on each bar.
This makes it very easy for the performer to
strike the right bar.
chromatic instrument.
design.
Glockenspiel of both types is a
The keyboard model is of the piano
This instrument has a superior tone-quality than
the keyboard model, which is clumsy and produces a less
brill iant tone.
Generally, the tone of this instrument is a
harsher ver sion of the tone of a Celeste.
The attacks, due
to unsoftened hammer s, are more pungent.
u
describe it as a "metallic'' timbre.
•
Some musicians
. .·
•
.
..
146 .,
The range commonly used for both models of
orchestra bells is as follows :
Figure LIV.
-
-
J
I,
,
-
0
Pa r. t·s are usually written on one staff, in treble
clef, but can be written, when necessary, OI\. two stav,es .,
As the sound of this instrument has a relatively
long durability, it is not desirable to write rapid passages,
unless sue� passages represent instrumental form s of one
harmonic assemblage .,
It is to be remembered that Glockenspiel is one of
the most commonly used instruments ..
Its brilliance is due to the dominance of high
partials.
Chimes (Campana)
"Campana" means bell s ; the English term is
"chimes" .
This instrument is used in large orchestras and
has a group of cylindrical metal bars suspended from a frame,
The bars are struck by a large wooden hammer (sometim es two
hammers are used).
This instrument has the sound of the
church carillion and represents the more compact version of
u
the latter.
•
It is used for similar climactic or jubilant
....... .
-•:
..
147.
episodes, or, in some cases, for stimulating associations
with a real carillion.
The carillion, of course, is a to tally different
instrument, consisting of church bells and bars and played
by fists, striking specially designed large keys.
Chimes usually have a set of bars covering one
-
c to o.
chromatic octave from -
The parts are written in the
middle octave, in treble qlef, but have such dominance of
higher partials that, strictly speak�ng, their pitches do
not belong to one particular octave.
blend with the brass instruments.
Chimes make a good
•
Church Bells
This instrument is actually a group of several
•
suspended church bells, matched in their pitches for each
individual score.
Such a set was used in Chaikovsky's
overture "1812", where the church bells represented some of
the standard Russian-Orthodox carillions and conveyed the
idea of jubilation over the retreat of Napoleon Bonaparte
from Moscow.
•
148.
'
Lesson CCLXXIIIt
Vibraphone (also known as Vibra-Harp)
A relatively new instrument, designed and manu
factured in the U.S.A.
It is widely used at present in
practically every dance-band.
There are already several
very eminent virtuosi, who appear as soloists with the dance
bands and small ensembles playing dance music (Adrian Rollini,
Lionel Hampton and others).
This instrument is built on the general principle
of xylophone, but its bars, of quite large ...size, are made of
metal, have resonating tubes under them and ''8.Il extension of
tone.
The latter is achieved by means of electromagnetic
induction (which not only extends the durability of the tone,
(j
•
but also supplies it with an automatic vibrato by intensity)
and is controlled by pressing a special pedal, built for this
purpose.
This device permits the execution of various dynamic
effects, like sforzando-piano.
Vibraphone has a rich "golden" tone and differs
from chimes in its timbral components: it has some similarity,
in its basic timbre, with the "chalumeau" of the
. clarinet •
Vibraphones, depending on their size and price,
vary in range.
following range.
u
Large concert vibraphones usually have the
Figure LV,
• •
-�
II
'
..
•
149 •
This instrument is played by special hammers,
often even of a different design ( to achieve d-ifferent
Some vibraphonists hold two, three and
types of attacks) .
even four hammers in each hand. This permits to execute
some self-sufficient solos in block�harmonies, following one
another at a considerable speed.
Marimba an� Xrlophone
Marimba and xylophone are essentially the same
kind of instruments.
The difference between the two is
chiefly in the resonating cylindrical tubes which are part
of the marimba and are absent on the xylopho'ne.
Both types
have the same kind of wooden bars and are played with the
u
special hammers.
•
Xylophone is more traditional with the
symphony orchestras, while marimba is more used with the
dance-bands.
It is interesting to note that many truly
primitive African tribes use the marimba, i . e . , even they
have arrived at the necessity of a resonating medium. The
resonating tubes attribute to the marimba a richer and a
more durable tone.
The music written for this instrument as a
participant of a dance band is considerably more complex
technically than the parts written for the xylophone in
symphonic scoring .
One of the reasons for this is that in
symphony orchestras one of the percussioners plays the :xylo
phone part but he is not expected to be a xylophone virtuoso.
0
In the dance bands, quite to the contrary, the marimbaist is
•
,
J
150.
a specialized soloist (often also playing the vi b�aphone)
and is even capable of handling two, three and even four
hammers in each hand.
Some of such virtuosi handle the xylophone or
the marimba as a very delicate instrument.
This is accom
plished by the use of special soft hammers.
Some of such
performers give a very refined rendition of Chopin's piano
compositions.
One of the very versatile xylophonists even
built a dance band around the xylophone as ' a leading solo
instrument.
H.is name is Red Norvo, and the 'recordings of
>
his performances are available.
,
· The range of the xylophone and of the marimba
In writing fo� symphony orchestra, it is best to
varies.
adhere to the following range:
Figure LVI .
•
I)
�
I,,
,
I
.,
J
0
In writing for the xylophone or the marimba
used in the present American dance-bands the range can be
extended as follows:
0
•
•
151 .
Figure LVII,
-e-
I
�
./
..
/
,
0
Full ·chromatic scale is available in both cases ..
The alt ernate tremolo (like the plectrum tremolo
on the mandol in) of both hands on the same bar (which is
equivalent to the same note) is a common way, of playing long
notes on this instrument .
G
to sound staccato ..
•
All shorter durations are bound
It is an excellent instrument for
execution of IS2p in any form and at practically any speed.
Glissando either over the naturals (c, d, e, f,
g, a, b) or the sharps (cf, df, ff, gf, af) are ano ther
common device on this instrument.
Combinations of both
glissando forms �nd their combinations of ascending and
descending directions can also be used.
Both the xylophone and the marimba have a wide
dynamic range.
Xylophone blends better with the flute,
marimba, either with the low register of t he flute or with
the "c�al umeau n of the clarinet.
Good combinations are also
obtained by using the xylophone with the piano.
Parts for these instruments are usually written on
u
the staff in the treble clef (G) .
In many French scores the
xylophone parts are writt en one octave higher than they sotmd •
•
152.
The reason for this is, probably, the dominance of upper
harmonics which, in some cases, produces an impression that
a certain tone sounds one octave higher •
Many interesting accomplishments can result
when parts for this instrument. are written with the full
knowledge of the Theory of In strumental Forms.
The following percussive instruments of this
group can be looked upon as more primitive or more
simplified versions of the instruments already described.
Triangle
...
This instrument consists of one 'long metal bar
of cylindrical form and of relatively small diameter and is
bent into an isoseless or an equilateral triangle _ (hence
•
the name) , not quite closed at its vertex.
It is usually
suspended on a string and is played by striking i t with
another straight metal bar, of about the length of each side
of the triangle itself and of about the same (or smaller)
diameter.
This instrument is a simplified version of a
glockenspiel.
Its high partials dominate to such an extent
that it is considered to be an instrument "without definite
pitch".
Thus, triangle can be used with any harmonic
assemblage whatsoever.
There are only two ways of usipg this instrument:
(1) individual attacks (all staccato) arranged in any
desirable form of temporal rhythm;
•
153 .,
(2) tremolo, which is accomplished by attacking alternately
two adjacent sides of the triangle.
It is an instrument of a limited dynamic range
(generally mf) but can be made to sound very loud in tremolo .
The latter also offers crescendo-diminuendo effects .
The tone-quality of this instrument is very
prominent and very "metallic".
It blends well with all high registers, as at
such frequencies ton-e-qualities lose their timbral character
istics (due to weakness or inaudibility of 'the high partials) .
The
parts for this instrument are, written on a
•
single line.
No clefs are used.
Wood-blocks
Wood-blocks are made in the form of a parallel e
piped (rectangular solid) or, more frequen tly, in the form
of a spheroid (eliptic solid) .
In both cases, some portion
of the solid is carved out, and the hollowness thus formed
contributes to the resonating quality 0f this instrument.
Wood-blocks are made in different sizes to secure
a selection of pitches, but these pitches are not too distinct.
A wood-block may be looked upon as a simplified
version of xylophone.
hamme rs.
The blocks are struck with sticks or
Often (in dance combinations) an outfit consisting
of three, four or fiv e wood-blocks is added to the usual
•
combination of traps so they can be handled by one performer •
Wood-block is a purely rhythmic instrument.
•
154.
However, if a set of several is used, they may be notated
o n the regular five-line staff, where the pitches can be
represented by the closest notes.
Castagnette (Castanets)
Castanets is a n instrument of Spa nish origin, and
in most cases is used in music which is, if not truly Spanish,
somehow associated with Spain.
By tradition casta nets is an
accompanyi ng rhythmic instrument, played by the dancer and
not by an outside . performer.
Castanets are two small hardwood ,plaques (with a
shape of the sole of an infant•s shoe) loose1y joined by a
cord.
They are held within the palm of a hand, wi th the
string put over the middle finger.
The actual execution of
sounds is produced by the fi nger attacks.
Fin-gers strike
one of the castagnets and this, in turn, strikes another.
This produces a clicking and very brilliant high-pitched
inharmonic sound.
I n some cases, two pairs of casta nets are used
(one pair for each hand).
Some of the Spanish and Flamenco dancers are real
virtuosi of this unprete ntious instrument .
It is a highly developed (by tradition) rhythmic
resource i n orchestration and may be looked upon as a
simplified version of xylophone.
It is particularly useful
for animated high-pitched figures, whereas wood-blocks are
considerably lower in pitch and cannot be maneuvered at suc);l
-
155.
a high speed.
The. part of each hand must occupy one line.
Thus for two pairs of castanets two lines must be used.
The advantage of writing on two lines lies in the fact that
it would accommodate many complex interference rhythms,
'
which would still be easy to execute by: · the two hands. It
is well worth while to make a study of the traditional
Spanish castanet rhythms.
Clavis
•
Clavis is a CUban instrument ,. consisting of two
fairly thick sticks made of hardwood.
one stick with another.
CJ
The performer hits
Both sticks are alike.
This instru
ment is commonly used today as a rhythmic ingredient of
•
Afro-Cuban dance forms (Rhumba, Carioca, Samba, Conga etc.)
by our dance orchestras.
The sound of clavis is high-pitched, inharmonic
and piercing.
i
In rhumbas it usually performs the
trinomial (i.e., 3+3+2, 3+2+3, 2+3+3) .
series
The part of clavis occupies one line.
Clavis is ordinarily used with the so-called
rhumba bands, but can be introduced into sy mphonic scoring,
when Cuban. character is present in the music.
Group '.fwo
Gong
0
This instrument comes from Hindustan and China.
It is made in two shapes: a circle or a square (sometimes,
•
•
156.
an oblong) .
It is all made out of metal, some of which is
semi-precious and precious.
large in dimensions.
symphony orchestras.
It is usually very massive and
At least this is the type used by the
It is suspended from a frame to which
it is attached at a distance by a pai.r of strings.
Figure LVIII,
II
lI
,
I
,
...
It is the lowest-pitched inharmonic percussive instrument
•
of the metal disc group •
It is attacked by a stick with a round soft end.
The sound is very rich in its qu&lity and has a great
dynamic range, combined with long durability of tone.
blends well with low register of brass instruments. .
It
Gong must be very moderately used, as it is the
last resource of main climaxes.
Too frequent use of this
startling tone-quality neutralizes its character in the
listener's impression.
If the sound of the gong must be shorter than
•
its natural fading peried at a given intensity, it is damped
out by the hand.
Otherwise the term commonly used is
written out above the note: "laisser vibrer" (let vibrate).
C
/
157.
u
Fi gure LIX,
C
0
(:
l'
� vi�
0
/
l'
l
l
-
As gong has a slowly fading sound, successive
attacks require a considerable time-interval between them.
Piatti (CYWbals}
Cymbals consist of a pair of disc's of approxi -
mately 18" diameter.
precious metals.
•
They are made of semi-precious and
Each disc has a leather handle, in the
form of a short loop, , by which it is held,
Cymbals are played in two basic ways:
(1) by striking one cymbal over the other (for louder and
more prolonged sounds, with a certain amount of friction) ;
(2) by making a tremolo of alternating attacks over one
suspended cymbal (which is 1n horizontal position); for
this purpose either hard drumsticks (which . results in
harsher tone-quality and higher-pitch.ed) or kettle-drum
sticks (whieh are soft and render lower-pitched softer
tone).
•
The range of cymbals, the tone of which c onsists
of rich inharmonic sound-complexes, varies depending on the
form of attack.
•
When the friction surface is small, the
•
158.
sound is higher-pitched.
Cymbals cover approximately the range of trom
bones (exclud ing their pedal tones) and trumpets, with
which they blend very wel l.
Cymbals struck by one another, i.e., cymbals
held in hands usually are not indicated in any way, except
by their temporal values and dynamics.
A suspended cymbal
is usually recognized by the performer, because its part is
•
written as tremolo (indicated ---.....- over the note).
The use
of hard sticks is marked : colla baghetta da tamburo.
The
use of soft sticks is marked: co lla mazuola '-or colla baghetta
da timpano.
Tti1e standard terminology is notoriously c l umsy.
I recommend to my students to use my own nomenclature,
which is simple and economical, and permits a much more
diversified use of the different types of attack:
a suspended cymbal :
(a) hard sticks:
•
(b) soft sticks:
--o
two cymbals in hands:
O
I usually make footnotes at the beginning of my
scores explaining the meaning of these symbols.
I made the
first use of this nomenclature in 1921.
An instrument which at once belongs to Group Two
(discs) and Group Three (membranes) is a well known
Tamburino (Tamburin)
•
•
159 ..
This instrument consists of a circular wooden
frame over which a skin membrane is stretched, covering one
side o f it. · Thus the form of the membrane is a circle.
In
addition to this, there are small (about 1.5" in diameter)
metal double discs, loosely attached in a perpendicular
position to the frame of the tamburin.
The tamburin viewed
from above appears as follows:
Figure LX.,
•
,
This instrument, associated with Italian and
Spanish folk dancing, is played by either striking the skin
with the palm, which at once produces a high pitched inharmonic
drum sound and the jingling of the discs (high pitched
"metallic" inharmonic sound), or by shaking the tamburin in
the air (held by the left hand), which produces the j ingling
,
of discs alone, or by producing a n oscillatory frictional
movement o ver the skin, by the thumb of the right hand,
which results in a scintillating t¥pe of tremolo.
Often
these ways of playing the tamburin are combined in effective
dynamic and rhythmic sequences.
A great deal of varying the
attack forms is left to the initiative of the performer.
160.
The parts are commo nly written on one line,
indicating the durations a:nd the dynamics.
Tremol o is
marked as u�al by.: �
Group Three
Timpani (Kettl e-Drums)
Kettle-drums are the first percussive i nstrument
to occupy a lasting place in symphonic scoring.
It was
Josef Hayd n, who i ntroduced them (Simfonie mit P.auckenschlag
[symphbny with kettle-drums]) .
Since that time they have
become a standard ingredient of symphonic �d operatic scoring.
.
...
Kettle-drums are ordinarily usea in groups of
three and four .
u
The origi nal selection of three kettle-drums
usually furnished the tonic, the subdominant and the dominant.
,
Today they are used i n any pitch-group combination that
satisfies the harmonic need.
Kettle-drum consists of a hollow copper hemi
sphere, with a skin membrane stretched over its equatori.al
circumference.
The tension of the membrane is adjustable,
in other words, kettle drums can be tuned.
This is a.c com
plished by screwing i n and out the handles (of which there
are several around the skin surface) controlling the tension
of the membr a ne.
It calls for a keen sense of pitch, to
tune kettle-drums, as it has to be done quietly while the
orchestra is playing.
Kettle-drummers (or tympanists)
usually know the parts of th e neighbori ng instruments, from
0
which they borrow the necessary pitch.
•
The n they tune the
)
I
161.
membranes and try them out quietly, while the orchestra
is playing loud enough before their entrance.
Each kettle-drum produces one pitch at a time.
To obtain many pitches at a time would require as many
•·
kettle-drums.
as 16 of them.
Berlioz used in one of his scores as many
Considering the usual equipment of the large
symphony orchestra, it is advisable not to use more than
four.
In some instances two simultaneous tympanists can be
used, in which case one may count on four or five instruments .
•
The three standardized sizes, ,usually allow the
tuning ,,ithin the following ranges :Figure LXI.
•
o·
The total range may be considered practical even
if one semitone 1s added at each end:
Figure LXII,
,...
-
•
_/
r� r�
162.
Rimsky-Korsakov ordered for his opera-ballet
"Ml.ada" a small kettle-drum, which could be tuned up to
d p of the middle octave.
He c alled it "timpano piccolo".
The contem porary .Amebican-made kettle-drums have
a pedal device for automatic tuning .
This device is
supposed to stretch the membrane at all points at an equal
tension, which is not too reliable in actu�l practice.
The
performers still hav� to rely on their pitch-discrimination.
The tuning of kettle-drums is marked at the
beginning of the score, like this, for in�tance: Timpani in
F, B P, c.
u
When the tuning changes, the peti'ormer is warned
by the composer in advance, as a c ertain amount of time is
necessary for tuning of this instrument (the actual time
•
period required largely depends upon the performer's
experience and skill).
It is indicated like this, for
example: muta in G, B , D.
Kettle-drums are played (the parts are written
in the bass clef [F] on a regular five-line staff; two
staves can be used if necessary) by two special sticks,
having soft spheroid-like ends.
The whole performance
consists of individual and rolling (i.e ., alternating
tremolo attacks; the latter may affect one or two instruments)
attacks.
This instrument has an enormous dynamic range
and in ff can pierce the entire tutti of an orchestra.
0
c resoendi are particularly effective in tremolo (marked:
Big
163 ..
u
Sometimes, very seldom though, very delicate
sounds are obtained by m uting.
Flannel or other soft
cloth is put over the skin of a kettle-drum .
The use of
such mutes is indicated by: timpani coperti (i.e. , covered
kettle-drums).
To restore the normal effect, "modo
ordinare" is used as a term.
The sound of kettle-drums does not possess too
•
•
distinct a pitch.
This is due to the abundance of lower
in.harmonic to nes.
This instrument has a quickly fading
tone.
The pitch, due to the presence of l�w inharmonics,
•
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seems to the ear lower than it is writ ten. '
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164 ..
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Lesson CCLXXIV,
Gran Cassa (Bass-Drum)
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This instrument has a cylindrical frame of very
large diameter.
sides.
The skin-membranes are stretched on both
It i s considered to be an instrument without definite
pitch, as the inharmonic tones predominate and all frequencies
are very low.
Bass-drum is usually played by a special stick,
made for this instrument .
The parts are usually very simple,
are written on one line, and consist of merely individual
attacks.
Of course other sticks can be us'ed, an d the
execution of tremolo is also possible ..
0
Some of the bass-drums used by the dance-bands
•
have a narrow frame and only one membrane •
Bass-drum blends n aturally with low pitches ..
Tamburo (Snare-Drum)
This is the most alert instrument in the entire
third group .
In shape it is the same as the bass-drum; its
size is considerably smaller.
While the bass-d rum is p layed
in vertical position, this drum is played in an almost
horizontal position (there is a small angle to the horizon) .
It is played by a pair of hard sticks, known as drum-sticks.
Snare-drum derives its name from the snares which
are a pair of thin gut strings, stretched across its lower
head and producing a rattling sound .
Sometimes tamburo is used without snares (it is
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165.
u
quite customary with the dance bands) , in which case this
should be indicated: "no snares".
sounds.
This instrument produces middle-high inharmonic
It has a wide dynamic range.
The speed of rolling is the main feature of
this instrumen t.
Even the equivalent of grace-notes is
often extended into rolls (marked:
fJ
,
i.e ., the small
note is the roll and the large note is the attack).
It is suitable for any intricate rhythmic
•
patterns which can be executed practicall.Y. at any speed.
'
in America.
The jazz era created many outst'anding drummers
Yet the patterns of their improvised rhythms
are still very one-sided and limited, as compared t o their
u
canni bal colleagues in Belgian Congo •
•
Snare-drum has al?.rays been in use in all
military organizations.
inherited association.
Its martial character by no,v 1s a.n
The parts are written on one line .
For the students of this system, there are many
opportunities in utilizing the snare-drum as a tw·o-part
instrumental interference medium.
Pango Drums
•
This outfit usually consists of a pair of drums.
•
The shape of the frame is a hollow inverted cone (it can be
played on either side) , which at its open ends has skin
membranes .
One of the drums is somewhat larger tha n the
166.
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other, but there is no fixed ratio .,
Pango drums are
played by hands.
Though probably of Af rican origin, it is widely
used in Cuban rhumbas and conga s.
R.hythmic patterns
executed by the Cuban performers are often extremely
intricate (mostly based on splitting of the
·i
series) .
Pango drums are of ten employed by the rhumba
bands, and Cuban performers are very common.
Tom-Tom
This instrument con si sts of a �mall cylindrical
frame, which is relatively wide for its size.
skin membrane over its frame..
It i s ordinarily used (one or
more) in jazz bands and played with a stick.
•
It has one
sound blends with the middle regist er.
Its inharmonic
. Group Four
thi s group .,
this group .,
N o instrument can be con sidered standard in
All special sound-effect in struments belong to
There is neither any need nor possibility to
describe all such in struments, as new types are being
deve. loped and
ill troduced
every year.
Some of these instru
men ts have a brief popularity after wh ich most of them
become ob solete .,
The purpose of bringing sound-effect in struments
to the composer ' s attention is to stimulate his re source-ful
ness and to suggest that he too c an u se some special
materials for sound effects.,
It is also advi sable for him
f
167.
to study the history of instruments and to attend the
music departments of museums, as this would give him a
proper perJpective and ori�ntation in the subject .
One of the more commonly known instruments of
t h is group is an ordinary sheet of iron (usu�ly termed in
Frenc h: feuille de fer) .
By holding suc h a -sheet at one e
· nd
and shaking it, one obtains thunder-like �ounds.
Single
strokes and tremolo also can 'be executed on a suspended iron
sheet, using t h e different types of standard sticks.
Cow bells are used sometimes as- a musical instru.
ment for .descriptive music of bucolic c hara\?ter. T he bells
can be either shaken or struck wit h a hard stick.
T heir
tuning is unimportant, as t he use of them is supposed merely
to suggest cow pastures.
Emery boards (I used them in my Symp honic Rhapsody
"October" : to produce a steam engine effect) are used some
times in symphonic and dance scoring.
Rubbing o f the
surfaces of two emery boards (i.e., sound is obtained by
friction and not by attack) produces a powerful sound.
It
1s an excellent descriptive medium for locomotive or train
effects.
Musieal saw was once very popular.
as an instrument of the melodic type.
It was used
Two methods of playing
were used: striking it with a stick or a small hammer, or
striking it with t he bow (usually a long stroke ending wit h
staccato) .
It is an extremely effective instrument, whose
168 .,
tone-quality resembles an idealized soprano voice and
whose vibrato can be co ntrolled by the performer .,
The
handle is held rigidly between the knees and the end of the
saw is s·appprted by the middle finger of the left hand .,
While the finger presses the end of the saw, the entire
saw bends: the greater the curvature, the hig her th� pitch.
Bow or hammer produce attacks and are held in the right hand.,
�oday composers· begin to use phonograph
•
records with sound effects (birds, animals and other sounds
of the surroundi ng nature); the latter ar� included as
compo nent parts of a score.
Program and �ackground music in radio and
(j
cinema utilize such recordings and often simply transfer
,
them on a sound-track .,
•
There is a sound-effect renting record library,
containing any imaginable sound (there are more than 10,.000
The firm is located in New York, but
items now) _effects.
it supplies the entire country.
Human Voices (Vocal I nstruments)
Human voice is one of the original natural
musical instrume nts.
It is by no means sta ndardized .,
There
are too many types of voices and too many ways of using
them.
Each national cul ture has different types of voices
and different D!ethods of singing.
Even different styles of
music within one national culture often call for totally
different manners of execution.
Just to get a bold illustra-
•
,
169 .,
tion, compare t he bel canto style of operatic vocal art
with the so popular crooning or "torch-singing " of today.
The contrasts in singing of different nations are at least
as great.
Compare, for instance, French folk singing with
Siamese folk singing or with Abkhasian (some of the Black
Sea Caucasian shore; the mythicaJ Jand of Golden Fleece
[Jason D choral singing which has a unique instrumental char
•
acter of its own •
Even in the so-called European musical culture
we find such different styles as the Itali{m bel canto, the
'
Russian vocal style (like Chaliapine) , the flerman liedersinging etc.
Then we find such contrasting styles as vocal
jazz ensembles and the plain chant of the Catholic Church.
(_j
•
No doubt new styles will appear in the future •.
Besides the necessity 9f con sidering all these
stylistic and national differences in the voice as musical
instrument, there are also biological differences and
modifications, which take place as time goes on. One of
such modifications is the appearance of greater differentia
tion of ranges and characters.
Some time ago there were
mostly tenor and bass male voices.
Later it became necessary
to single out the i· ntermediate type: baritone .
bass-baritones, tenor.-baritones etc.
Nov, we have
Standard parts of the
classical repertoire are not writ ten for them; so they have
to either sing the parts which are too high or too low. for
them, or else look for composeFs who would write for these
•
•
170.
new vocal instruments.
Sometimes we also encounter biological aberra
ti ons producing such voi ces as a lti no, which is not only
higher than the male t enor, but also has a peculiar quality
of its own, not to be confused with a boy • s alto - or a
female ' s contralto _
Rimsky-Korsakov even wrote a part for
an al.tino (the astrologer in ncoq d ' Or") , for which Russia
•
found only two performers •
There are also other cases of vocal travesti,
like the lrussian Gyps� singer Varia Panina who possessed a
'
'-
genuine barit one; or another Russian singer� Anna Meichi c k,
who had suc h a massive and wide-ranged contralto that she
u
sang the part of Demon, 1n Rubinstein's opera of th,e same
name.
Anna Meichick was the first contralto at the Metro
politan Opera House in New York for many years.
With all thi s .in view, the problem of describing
standard human voi ces seems to be insoluble.
What the
composer has t o be aware of is .t hat when wri ting for an
oboe, he has a pretty well defined auditory image in his
mind, while when writing for a tenor, he would not know what
•
•
he would get in the actual performance •
There are other considerations of equal importance.
one of them i s t he effect of language upon the style of
vocal e xecution.
And this often concerns such important
facts that the very nature of the Italian language (i . e .,, the
type and the di stri bution of vowels and con sonants) makes
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-
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17 1 .
singing easy and natural and the artiiculation clear, as
compared to the English language.
A number of good
singers, whose native tongue is English, sing be tter in
Certain English sounds, like th, do not permi t
Italian.
to get a proper air impac t.
On the other hand, · the entire
manner of singing in French, due to i ts phonetic a nd articu
latory nature, acquire.s a nasal charac te r (on, en, un, in
etc.).
composer.
All this naturally cannot be neglected by the
Thus, in order to present a �omewhat practical
description of human voice� as orchestral instruments, I
have to resort to somewhat specialized generalities •
•
.Among these are the sta ndar,d choral ranges,
as they are traditionally used in our scoring for a capella
or accompanied chorus .
Soloists sometimes have wider ranges.
But it is not always the case •
.Another generalization can be drawn with
respect to basic timbres of vowels, in which case I shall
use the Latin pronunciati. o n of vowels ,,
No other components can be generalized, as all
tone-qualities are indivi dual; their forms of vibrato are
also individual.
Physically, each sound produced by the
same voice on the differen t vowels of the same pitch, or on
the same vowel differently pitched, not speaking of t he
differe n t vowels differently pitched, has a different char
acter.
But this we cannot take into consideration, as eve n
-
172 .
•
violin changes i ts character (and in many instances even
timbre) on different strings .
Another component, which cannot be generalized,
is dynamics.
The volume of voice an d i t s dynamic range
v aries individually.
Powerful voices, if combined with
pleasing qu ali ty, are considered valu able, as such voices
can produce a powerful impression by their dynamic versa
tility.
•
Nowadays the timbr e, the character an d the volume
can b e considerably modified either b y us ing a mic rophone
o� by acou stical modification of the sound-track, which is
,,
' .
constantly done in the radio and the cinema fiel d.
•
Neither can individual articulating quality
(which, strictly speaking, belongs t o the field of vocal
attacks) be generalized, even when considering one particu.lar
•
language. Some out standing singers had magnificent articula
•
•
tion in addition to their vocal quality and general technique •
I can mention two, as an example of perfect articulatory
techniqu e, though these singers belong to two different
national cultures : one, Mattia Battistin± (an Italian bari
tone); another, Theodore Chaliapine (a Russian basso) •
Now, after making all these necessary warnings,
I can proceed with the description of �horal ran-ges and
basic timbres of the latinized vowels.
In some cases composers write certain · solo, or
even choral parts, for a definit e. perform er or a de finite
CJ
organization of performers.
In such a case, of course, he
173.
u
can do a better job, as his parts would be more fitting
for the individual characteristics of the soloist or the
ensemble.
Figure LXIII .
•
Standard Choral Ranges
Female Voices:
•
Soprano I (usually Dramatic Soprano)
Jl..
:t
<;1
..
dt============::;�=��==�====================�������
Soprano II ·(Mezzo-Soprano, Mezzo-Contralto)
T
Alto (usually boys)
•
(continued on next page)
0
Contralto
I•
Male Voices:
Tenor I (usually Dramatic Ten or)
.a..
�
•
Tenor II (Baritone)
.
i
I
"
�
..
-,-
-�
�;___
r-.-------------::
2�::.,__.....;.::
Basso I
---*
__.
-
\.
-
,
-•
_______---::. . --------------
-
Basso II (usually Basso Profundo)
•
Male voices, when written in treble clef, sound one octave lower .
The so-called lyric sopranos and tenors usually have the range of
sopPano II and tenoP II pespeotively, but with less developed
lower register.
0
No. t. I.ooae Lear
•
175 .,
Figure LXIV.
Timbral Scale of the Five Basic Latin Vowels
Latin
English Phoneti c
u
00
0
oh
a
R
stopped
eh
double reed RR
ee
i
0
reed
ah
e
open
Timbre
closed
•
· ive basic timbral
This scale relates the vowels to r
groups, with which each vowel blends itself �espeotively.
'
Thus, O corresponds to flutes ., R to clarinets, ED to horns,
RR to oboes and bassoons,
e
to nasal ti mbres and muted
instruments (muted brass, celli, muted stringed instruments
in general) .
This scale can be extended to nine units, by means
of combined vowels.
The latter can be obtained by mixing of
the adjacent vowels of the basic scale.
A nine-unit scale may
be extremely helpful in evaluating general timbral eharacter
istics of the English, French ., German and Scandinavian vowels.
Figure LXV.
Timbral Scale of the Four Combined (Intermediate) Vowels
•
Latin
U
+
0
English
u (up)
O+ R
a (as)
$ + RR
o + a
o (cod)
e + 1
1 (it)
a + e
Timbre
R + E&
RR + .
•
176.
Further supplements, which may still be necessary,
derive from c ombinations of the non-adjacent vowels.
The
most important of these are somewhat common to La.tin, English,
French, German and Scandinavian.
Figure LXVI .
Latin
The Two Additional Combined Vowels
English
e (alert)
•
1
(bird)
(Phonetic )
oe
French
German
Timbre
u
.u.
o +e
eu
u (fur)
y
••
''
R + RR
All other u-vowels, as in the English word "you",
or the so�nd of Russian character " l-0 11 (pronounced: you) , have
an attack of the attack of the English "Y" (as in "yoke"), or
u
German "j" (yot), or Russian " u" (brief
11ee"
[in Russian:
ee kratkoye]) and the duration of . the Latin " u", or English
"oo".
This information is sufficient to guide the
student in the field of basic vowel characteristic s and help
him to understand the reason for selecting one or another
ins trumental timbre in the accompaniment to vocal parts, wqich
is based on coin cidence (similarity) or juxtaposition (contrast)
of the basic timbral characteristics, such as "u" (Latin) , for
flute, "o" (Lsatin), for clarinet, etc.
* * * * *
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JOSEPH
S C H I L L I N G E R
C O R R ES P O N D E N C E
•
COURSE
Subject: Music
With. Dr. Jerome Gross
Lesson CCLVIII.
•
THEORY OF ORCHESTRATION
PART ONE: Ii�STRUMENTS
Introduction
What mas been known for the last couple of centuries
as "symphony orchestra" is a heterogeneous aggregation of
antiquated tools.
'vVooden boxes and bars, wooqen pipes, dried
'
sheep's guts, horse hair and the like are the materials out of
which the sound-producing instruments are built.
.,
Evolution of musical instruments, during its history
of several millenia, followed the course of individual crafts
manship and of trial and error method.
The instruments themselves are not scientifically
conceived and not scientifically combined with each other.
Some of the orchestral groups participate with the others by
virtue of tradition (like brass and string instruments which,
in most cases, do not blend) and not by necessity.
Nobody ever
asks tr1e basic question: why should there be such a combination
as the stringed-bow, the wood-wind, the brass-wind and the
percussive instruments; and why should the respective groups
be. used in the unjustified ratios, which are considered standard.
It takes a long time to force upon an average normal
human ear such combinations as piano and violin or strings and
Copyright, 1942, Joseph Schillinger, New York City
•
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brass.
•
And this imposition of unblendable combinations
upon a selector called the human ear is termed"cultivation of
musicianst1ip".
But eventually people begin to like it, as
..
.
they beg.in to like smoking tobacco, which suffocates th·em at
first.
I t is even possible to condition the human ear to hear
the sound at a sustained intensity, while the sound at its
•
source is fading. Such is the case of piano. Ordinarily we
are not aware of the fact that piano tone fades very quickly.
I once, intentionally, subjected myself (at the age of 30) to
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a forced isolation from tt1e piano for three $ole ·months.
'·
The
only sounds I heard at that time were that of an organ and of
ahoral singing (i.e., the durable sounds).
peasants.
I lived among the
When I returned to the city, the piano sounded to
my ear as it really sounds, i.e., as a percussive instrument
with exaggerated attack and quick fading.
It took me two whole
weeks to "recover" from this unconditioned modus of hearing.
The implication is that many of the orchestral tone
qualities and blends are gradually assimilated by our ear.
Many of them are highly artificial and do not possess the
appeal of natural beauty, as many of the natural forms and
•
natural colors do •
The musician•s argument against better balanced,
more uniform tone-qualities, which are possible on the electronic instrµments., is that they have no individuality, while
the old instruments have.
But what they call "individualityn
is often a group of minor defec· ts and imperfections.
•
A
3.
trom bone, due to its acoustical design, has several (or at
The composer, on the other hand,
•
least one) tones missing.
•
can easily imagine those missing tones and imagine-them in
the trombone quality.
Yet he cannot use them in his score, as
they cannot be executed.
Now, take a bassoon.
Its low b�
is of inferior quality than the surrounding tones.
Why should
it be necessary to have a defective quality on one particular
pitch?
No one knows.
On the other hand, a composer, due to his experience,
can imagine certain tone-qualities beyond tlie ranges of the
respective standard instruments.
He cannot us� these qualities
because there are no instruments to perform them.
Under such conditions, the art of orchestration
•
amo\Ults to a constant (and 1n most cases unsuccessful)
struggle of the composer's imagination and inventiveness
against the actuality of instrumental limitations and imper
fections.
The way things stand today, the composer cannot
compose in terms of tone-qualities, intensities, frequ.encies
and attaek-forms (if he does not want to live in a fool's
paradise) , but in terms of concrete instruments, each
designed with no regard to any other instrument, each, there
fore, having peculiarities of its own.
Musicians also have a sentimentally-childish
attachment to craftsmanship of executing a "beautiful" tone
from a violin or other instruments�
indeed, can execute such a tone.
•
I
Very few performers,
But why is this self-imposed
4.
difficulty and struggle necessary?
Such an attitude has
a flavor of sportsmanship and competition.
'
Why not liberate
the performer from the necessity of struggle for obtaining
the proper tone-quality, while such tone-quality can be
achieved, and has · been achieved, by means of electronic sound
production.
The answer in many cases is ·that manf good :
•
performers, once relieved from this struggle� would feel
lost, as to them production of tone ·-quality is one half of
the entire interpretation.
In 1918 I published an article ("Electrification
of Music") in which I expounded my own ideas (at that time
completely new and original) on the inadequacy of old musical
•
instruments and on the necessity of developing new ones, where
sound could be generated and controlled electtically.
I
thought it would be desirable to have ibone-qualities, attackforms, frequencies (tuning) and intensities un�er control,
and to be able. to vary each component through continuous or
discontinuous (tempered) scales, suddenly or gradually, and,·
where the degree of the graduality of transition could be
determined as well.
And though there is no universal use of electronic
music yet, it is progressing very rapidly.
has already come true.
Most of my dream
In 1920 Leon TheP.emin demonstrated
his first primitive model of an electronic instrument before
a convent.ion of engineers in Moscow, Russia _,
•
On this model
pitch was controlled by movement of the right hand 1n f ree
space (in actuality, in electro-magnetic field) and volume,
by a speci fically designed pedal; the form of attack was
controlled by a knob;
the timbre was constant •
.
Through a number of years of my collaboration with
this inventor, the early history of the electronic music
culminated in two Carnegie Hall performances in New York,
.
where a whole ensemole of 14 improved space-controlled
theremins, m�ufactured by RadiQ Corporation of America (on
a mass production scale at the plant in Camden, New Jersey)
participated in 1930.
T hat first decade of electronic music, in which I
L
am proud to have taken the part of a musical pioneer, started
the art of music on an entirely new road, which is in pace
with the engineering accomplishments of our industrial era
of applied science .
There is no turning back from this road,
regardless of the absolute value of today's models of
The fact is that a new principle of
electronic instruments.
sound production and control has been established, and this
principle will bring further improvements and perfection.
It is important to realize that the existing
musical instruments and their combinations are not stabilized
but ever-changing accessories of musical expression; that the
absolute knowledge of the functioning o f the keys of a clarinet
is of no basic value, as the design of such an instrument
varies and the whole family of such instruments may vanish •
•
•
Thus, though in my Description of Standard
Instruments all the necessary information is given, the
composer must not overrate the importance of it, as the
entire combination of a symphony orchestra, with all its
component instruments, very soon may become completely out
moded and eventually obsolete.
It will be a museum combina
tion for the performance of old music.
New instruments and
combinations will talce its place.
The moral of this Introduction is that it is more
•
important for the composer to know the physical aspects of
tone-qualities, frequencies, intensities and �ttack-forms per
se, rather than their resultant forms, as tr1ey appear on
certain types of the old instruments., It is a warning not
•
to place too much importance and confidence upon certain
types of instruments, only because they are so much in use
today.
In my Acoustical Basis ofOrchestration
- the
student will find the type of knowledge which is basic and
general and, tr1erefore, can be applied to any special case ..
This system is devised with a point of view which will give a
lasting service and will not become antiquated with the first
turn the history of this subject takes.
In order to broaden the student's outlook upon the
existing instruments, I am supplementing this Introduction with
a chronological table borrowed from my other work: "Varieties
of Musical Experience" •
•
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•
7.
Two items of this table deserve particular
attention: (1) the chronological precipitation of progress
and (2) the age of the new "electronic" era.
SCHEME OF EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
From Prehistoric Time
I.
MaP
utilizes his own organs: voice, palms, feet,
lips, tongue, etc.
From 10 - 20 Thousand Years Ago Un�il Our Time
II. Man utilizes finished or almost finished objects of
the surrounding world: bamboo pipes, sl)ells, bones
of birds, animal horns and antlers, 'etc.
From 5 - 10 Thousand Years Ago Until Our Time
III. Man processes raw material, giving it a definite
form: from a piece of terra cotta and hunter's bow
up to the Steinway piano and modern organ.
From 18th Century A.D,
IV.
MaP
constructs automatical�y performing instruments:
from 18th Century, mechanical musical instruments;
from 19th Century, recording and reproducing
musical instruments.
From the End of 19th Century
• v. Man invents a transmission of sound waves on long
distances: radio.
From the Beginning o� 20th Century
VI.
MaP
devises the sound production by means of:
1. Electro magnetic induction
2. Interference i n electro magnetic field
•
8.
DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD INSTRUMENTS
Stringed-Bow Instruments (The Violin Family)
The contemporary stringed-bow instruments have as
their immediate ai:icestor the viol family.
When the treble
viol, in the hands of Italian cra ftsman, achieved its
ultimate degree of perfection it became the dominant member
o f the viol family: the treble-violin emancipated itsel f into
plain "violin".
In this sense, the evolution of the violin.
family followed the downward (in the way of frequency) trend,
i.e., the perfecting of the violin was followed up by the
perfecting of violas, 'celli and string doubl�-basses (or
<
contrabasses) .
This course of evolution was somewhat contrary
to the development of the viol-family, where bass-viol (later,
violone) was the dominant instrument of the group, the
Thus "·violoncello" originated as the
diminutive form of the 11 violone" ••
patriarch of the family.
The more remote ancestor of this family is the
Arabian "rebab", a primitive type of stringed-bow (often
having only two strings .., however tuned in 3+2 ratio, i.e.,
in a perfect fifth) instrument and having a resonating
chamber.
This ancient instrument leads us back to the "mono
cho�d", a one-string bow instrument with a resonating chamber,
and, finally, to the actual source of the violin, v1hich is
bow and arrow.
This remarkable evolution of a defense weapon into
a musical instrument of high degree of perfection consumed not
•
9 .,
L
only millenia of astronomical clock-time, but also an
incalculable amount of human energy so lavishly spent by the
ge nerations of craftsmen and music al performers.
But with so much said and written about the
violin-making a nd violin-playing, certain facts remain
obscure.
As huma nity, most of its time (betV1reen and during
the eras of mutual mass-extermination) , is engaged in creative
mythologr_, the history of violin discloses a constant struggle
between the• glorificatio n of violin-makers. and violin-players •
.
more esse ntial in
The fu ndamental question is: which factor is
achieving perfection, the ins�rument or the pl�yer?
would deny the importance of both.
Nobody
However, I am entitled to
state, on the basis of experiments performed with Nathan
Milstein and another highly accomplished, but not extraordinary,
representative of t he same Leopold Auer school (whic h
contributed Heifetz, Zimbalist, Elman, Piastre, Seidel and
many other virtuosi), that the player is a more importan t
factor than the instrument.
.
I draw th.is comparison particularly
1n reference to quality of the tone-produc tion.
In my
experiment both performers were tested on the same two
instruments: one was a violin made by Antonio Stradivari and
the other, a mediocre sample of a mediocre craftsmanship.
Milstein•s tone-quality was superior on both violins and with
less individual difference between the two instruments, than
•
•
-
that of the other violin ist.
This may be a good lesson to
some parents and teachers: only a mediocrity needs a very
10.
0
expensive instrument.
As the best musical organizations of today have
at their disposal some of the best stringed-bow performers
(usually the potential soloists rejected by the market's
policy to use only the few very best) , the composer of our
civilization may indulge in scoring which requires, on the
part of the performer, a highly developed and versatile
technique.
A. Violin
1. Tuning
....
...
The entire range of the violin is 'Written in treble
clef.
The four strings are named g, d, a, e.
From the
physical standpoint all four strings have a different timbre.
•
The timbre of the g-string is particularly different from the
three upper strings.
In the hands of an accomplished performer
this timbral variance is greatly minimized.
However, good
playing does not affect the variance of the g-string with the
three upper strings.
This difference is due to the fact that
g-string is a sheep's gut wrapped around with a metal wire,
while d-string and a-string are sheep's guts which remain
•
unwrapped.
E-string only about three decades agp underwent a
transformat.ion: sheep 's gut was replaced by a metal wire ..
ratio.
Violin is tuned in perfect fifths, i.e., in 3+2
The tuning begins with the a-string.
of the remaining strings are:
2 ,
d -- 3
•
Thus the ratios
11 ..
As the above ratios noticeably deviate from the
corresponding pitches of the twelve-unit equal temperament,
some of the more discriminating composers (Hindemith, for
instance, makes it a rigid rule) avoid the use of open
strings altogether, except in chords.
Figure I.
Tuning of the Violin
•
..
•
•
0
•
•
12.
Lesson CCLIX,
2. Playing
The Left Hand Technique
Intonation is obtained on the violin by means
.
of shortening its string.s, which is accomplished by pressing
the string against the fingerboard.
For this purpose fingers
of the left hand are employed. Strings vibrate between the
two fixed points (nut and bridge) and transfer.their
vibrations to the bridge.
The vibrations of the bridge
of the violin,
stimulate sympathetic response from the body
'
which is a resonating chamber.
<-
Four fingers of the left hand (thumb is excluded)
participate in producing intonations.
•
The various distances
which the left hand occupies on the fir1gerboard (while
supporting the violin) 1n relation to the nut are called
positions. Each position on each string emphasizes four
pitch-units of the common diatonic scales.
The positions
begin with an open string. Such a position is known as
zero position.
Figure II.
The Zero Position
0
•
0
5
13.
Q.
Arabic numerals indicate the fingers employed.
Major tetrachords are used here merely for corivenience:
other accidentals can be employed as well.
The first position begins with a whole tone from
the open string.
Figure III.
The First Position
])
' T
i
1..
•
4
I
4
3
1
(,
4
3
•
If the first pitch-unit is only a semi-tone away
from the open string, then such a position is called
hal.f-position or semi-position.
Figure IV.
The Half-Position
•
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•
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2,
3
4
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2.
3
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4
14 .
•
From here on, violinists do not discriminate
any semi-positions, but consider only the Secon�, the Third,
the Fourth and so on, positions, regardless of the fact
•
whether they are tone-and-a-half or two tones, two-and-a-half
or three tones from the open string.
Figure V.
Positions above the First
...
1
-
E
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•
2,
4
3
]I! ,--------..,__ _�'.D ___,r-_...,;.:.___-i..__.!:_E --:-----,---'
.!.
.,,. .£. ,,
1
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e
4
•
1
5
4
f
1
4
1
4
15.
The three.lower strings (G, D, A) are seldom
used beyond
the eighth pos ition; the e-string is used even
.
1n orchestra-playing up to the fifteenth position (the
•
beginning of Rimsky-Korsakovrs opera TIKitezh").
All violin-playing is accomplished in most cases,
.
including double-stops and chords, by means of standard
fingering.
Chromatic alterations are performed by moving the
same finger a semitone up or a semitone down.
Insofar as the quality of intonation is concerned,
it is always easier to move the fingers in"the same position,
making transitions from one string to another.t than to change
positions rapidly, particularly when such positions are not
adjacent.
•
It is to be remembered that though the use of the
four fingers is analogous on all four string s and in all
positions, the actual spatial intervals on the fingerboard
contract logarithmically while moving upward in pitch.
This
means that a semitone·in the first position is spatially wider
than a semitone in the second position; the latter is wider
than the semitone in the third pos ition, and so on.
Musical intervals from the open strings can be
defined in terms of positions and positions can be de fined
in terms of musical intervals.
Position, where a given note is produced by the
fir st finger, equals the number of the corresponding musical
interval, minus one.
•
•
For instance:
16 ..
u
A
n
•
I-
3
2. I.
•-,.. , •
The given note gl
the third finger requires the
•
•
to be played on a-string with
hand.
to b e in such
a
posit ion
where� can be played on a-string with the first finger.
•
As
the musical interval from� t.o � (up) is a fifth, the position
can be defined as 5 - 1 = 4 (i.e., it is the fourth position).
This is so because the first position is produced by the
interval of a second (i.e., 2) from the open string •
(_)
This proposition can be reversed.
•
For example:
what note is played by the second finger in the sixth position
. ?
on the e-s tring.
The first finger in the sixth position produces an
interval of a seventh (i.e., 6 + 1 == 7); therefore the second
finger, in the same position produces an octave.
Thus the note
to be found is�, one octave above the open string ..
Figure VI.
"
(please see next page)
•
•
(Fig. VI)
(
Notes)
Example of Fingering Single
•
"
•
Alt
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4_
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t
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p
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3
Ma
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.....
Am:
E..m
Alt
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Em
Ill
2,
f
3 �
i
•
Playing of S2p
The so-called "doubie-stops", i.e., couplings,
harmonic intervals and two-part harmonies belong t o this
category.
S2p are played by means of standard fingering.
Left hand is con sidered in an open position if the finger of
the lower of the two pitches corresponds to a smaller number
than that of the higher of the two pitches.
The reversal of
this proposition corresponds to a closed. position.
Open
positions are easier to play and therefore are more grateful.
Closed positions can be used in double s�ops without particular
difficulties, but preferably not too fast.
Ill
Ill
III
18.
Figure VII.
Fingering of S2p
•
Unisons (possible only with one open string):
'
04
04
<
A])
•
Seconds:
•
E.A
4
0
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Thirds:
r
r
3
Fourths:
•
(continued on next page)
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19.
(Fig. VII, cont.)
Fifths (are played with one finger pressing two adjacent strings):
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Sixths:
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.
Sevenths:
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Octaves are mostly used 1n solo playing. As a
perfect acoustical octave (i.e., 2·+ 1 ratio) sounds quite
empty, soloists usually resort to playing an imperfect
octave (somewhat more narrow in stretch than the acoustical
octave), which sounds fuller�
0
In scoring for an orchestra,
octaves of violins are usually written divisi (i.e., both
pitches are played by the different parts).
•
20 .,
•
C
•
As octaves without participation of an open
string require a stretch between the first and the fourth
finger, it becomes obvious, that intervals wider than octave
can be performed only if the use of at least one open string
is possible.
A specia1 double-stop effect should not escape
the attention of the orchestrator: passages on one string
combined with another string remaining open.
•
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82.
For example:
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Such passages can be played at a considerable
speed .,
Playing of �3P
Playing of triple-stops includes melody with two
couplings and three-part harmony .,
When �ploying 3 fingers at a time (i.e.,
without participation of open strings) , .only open position
•
of the left hand can be used •
considerations hold true •
•
C
•
In all other cases, previous
3 o�en strings·
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Figure VII I.
Flngerlilg of S3p
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2 OPeit s.tripg� :
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. No op,ep_ strings:
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22.
C
Playing of S4p
Playing of quadruple-stops includes melody with
three couplings and four-part harmony.
quadruple-stop with four open strings:
There is only one
All other cases include 3, 2, 1 or no open strings�
All left hand positions must be open.
Such chords as 8(5) in
open J::l.armonic ( 2 ) pos1tions are quite easy because only 3
•
fingers participate (as the perfect fifth is played with only
one finger).
(please see pages 23-25)
C
•
•
•
•
•
0
•
Three.open strings:
--.
23.
04
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....
7!I" 0
7!J' 0
3
75' 0
Two open_ strings:
0
1" 0
0
0
'1!1'
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0
4
0
0
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0
0
0
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-- 0
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No. t. I.ooae Leaf
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24.
'cS
?T 0
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One op�n string:
-
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0
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'?S'
0
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0
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-0
-0
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0
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0 4
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No. t. Loose Leaf
KIN
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1&91 1 way. N, Y.
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25.
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No open strings:
2, 4
41
R. 4
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4
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The above tables are merely samples of the
systematization of the material on fingering� they can be
extended to higher positions (with or without participation
of the open strings).
These forms of fingering are applicable to
various instrumental forms.
As the bow can move s-imultaneously over not more
•
•
26 .,
C
than two strings (some exceptional virtuosi can bow three
strings simultaneously in for te; but such an accomplishment
is exceptional and we cannot count on it while writing
orchestral parts for the violins).
Thus I (2 p) can be performed as:
ap and a2p in sequent combinations;
can be performed as:
I(3p)
ap and a2p in sequent combinations;
I (4p) can be performed as:
ap and a2 p in sequent combinations.
Figure IX.
u
Examples of instrumen tal forms :suitable
for the violin
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•
27.
Lesson CCLX.
;
The Right
- - Arm Teclmique
Bowing is a process by which friction is produced
between the horse-hair of the bow and the string.
•
The
various techniques, by which strings can be set to oscillate
in different patterns, constitute the bowing attacks.
bowing attacks cause large amplitudes and light bowing
attacks, small amplitudes.
Heavy
In order to produce a continuous
sound, without a renewal of attack, the bow must move in one
direction.
The duration of a period depends upon the
pressure of the bo� on the string.
Thus the' period of
continuous bowing in one direction in piano is great&r than
L
in forte .
•
We shall now classify the forms of bowing as the
forms of attack in relati on to the durability of sound.
We
shall assume that the total scale of attacks lies between
the two limits: the lower limit corresponds to the most
continuous form of attack and the upper limit, to the most
discontinuous, i.e ., abrupt form of attack .
The movement of the bow in the direction from
g-string to e-string is considered downward and, when
necessary, is indicated as
n ;
the movement in the opposite
direction is considered upward and is indicated as
V.
The
upbeat groups are usually played V and the downbeat groups
·
0
are usually played
n .
Otherwise composer must indicate
the direction of the bowing which expresses his desire.
28.
TheScale of Bowing Attaclcs
(1) legato : a group of notes united by a slur represents
continuous bowing in one direction; large legato pertains
to a long group, and small legato, to a short group;
I
(2) non-legato (detache) or detached is indicated by the
absence of slurs or any other s igns : each note corresponds to an individual smooth bowing attack,
the
bow must be turned 1n the opposite direction after each
note;
•
(3� portamento (in bowing) represents a group of slightly
'
accentuated attacks, while the bow moves in one
direction; it is indicated as follows :
•
•
ii!�
,,,,
.......
the bow
(4 ) spicato! abrupt bowing for each attack, while
•
moves in one direction: �� ��
....__,,,
lighter than staccato;
; it sounds somewhat
( 5) staccato: abrupt bov,ing for each attack and changing the
direction of the bow after each attaclc :
JJJJ
• • • •
(no slurs) ;
(6) martellato (hammering): a vigorous dovmward or upward
stroke indicated like this: ���� (no slurs; bow changes
its direction �fter each attack, unless specified otherwise) ;
(7) sal tando ( jumping): a bouncing . group of attacks obtained
by one stroke (usually two, three or four attacks, which
can be described as throwing the bow from above; bouncing
is caused by the resilience of the string and the bow;
saltando has a light percussive character and is usually
employed in the accompaniments of the character of
•
Spanish dances: this effec t is a mild v ersion of casta· n'ees; ,
saltando is indicated like this: ��� ;
.....,_ _,,
(8) col legno (with the wooden part of the bow) is marked by
these words above the part; no othe r indications are necessary;
this effect is still mor e percussive in character than s- altando:
it is performed by an individual throw of the bow downward upon
the string, each throw corresponding to an individual attack;
the general effect of col legno is that of pianissimo.
To continue the abrupt forms of attack, we may
.
�
various
forms
of
plucking
the strings.
add, at this point, the
'
.
From the orchestrator 's viewpoint , there are two
basic forms of pi�zicato : (1) Rizzicato le gato, where the
respective finger of the left hand is moved on a small interval
(usually a semitone or a whole tone) , after the string is
plucked (this effect resembles the so-called "Hawaii.an
guitar") ;
(2) pizzicato (the usual form) , where each attack,
single (one string) or compound (several str.ings; this
sounds like an arpe.ggio) is produced by individual plucking •
The regular pizzicato is marked ptzz. and the pizzicato
legato is marked pizz. and also indicated by a slur: pizz.
IJ .
From the violinist's standpoint there is also a distinction
between the right-hand pizzicato or the left-hand pizzicato
(this is indicated by a cross : [ +] above the note; it is
mostly used on ope n strings, and can be e asily executed
amidst rapid passages of bowing) •
I
-
Bowing positions in reia�ion to the sections o f the bow
In relation to the manner of playing the, bow may
be considered as c onsisting of three sect ions: the nut
( l ower part), the middle sectio n and the head (upper part),
which in the international musical terminology corresponds
respectively t o :
(1) du taion; (2) media (or: modo o rdinan.e �) and
(3) a punto d Jarco �
When the specific sections of the bow are t o be
'
used, the composer must make the corresponding indications •
However, du talon is associated with martell'a.to, a punto d tarco
is associated with high-pitched bowing trem olo in pianiss.imo
and media simply serves as a symbo l of cancellation o f one o f
•
the previous special forms of bowing .
Bowing p o sitions in relation � the fingerboard and
the• bridge
There are three such basic - positions: (1) over the
fingerboard ( usually . at its widest part), known and marked as
s-ul tast o ; this effect produces a delicate flute-like qual ity;
( 2) in the usual place between the fingerboard and the bridge
(usually slightly closer to the, bridge), indicated also as
media or modo ordina.Ee ..:, used mostly for can cel lation of the
preceding or the following effect; (3) very close to the
bridge, marked as s�l ponticel�o, which is mostly used in the
bov,ing trem o l o ; this produces a nasal "double-reed" quality.
It is possible, while performing the bowing tremo lo,
•
31.
L
to move the b ow gradual ly from sul taste to sul ponticello
or back.
This is a neglected but very valuable technique,
by which a gradual modification of quality (tasto corres
ponds to flute,. ponticello, to double-reed) can be obtained
on all the stringed-bow instruments ..
Bowing tremolo (i.e., rapid forward-backward
movement of the bow) must not be confused with tremolo
legato, which is a finger-tremolo (like the trill, only in
a wider pitch-interval) .
•
3 . Range
The range of the violin, as empl'oyed by the
comp osers, uew upward during the XVIII and XIX Centurie s.
L
It was the desire of some of the out standing composers to
•
employ tri.e p itch beyond the range known to their predecessors.
This evolution of the range must be considered now to be
completed, so far as the known type of violin is concerned�
The reason for this is that Rimsky-Korsakov empl oyed (as a
pedal point), at the very opening of his opera "Kitezh",
]2_ of the third octave (the highest J2. on the piano keyboard),
which happens to lie (that is the point of finger-pressure)
at the very end of the fingerboard.
During Beethoven's
time, the u.pper limit was at £. of the sam e octave ..
Only e-string is used in such a wide range; all
other strings are used within the range of a ninth (14 semi
tones) ; however, the range of g-string is frequently extended
to a twel.fth and even more (the purp ose of this is to obtain
•
32.
C
the specific quality of high positions on t hat string) .
Figure X.
Range of the Violin
•
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:.,
...
.� .
(1) represents the limit for cantabile in unsupported
unison (i.e., without octave doubling) and cor responds
•
to the upper limit of the highest human voice, i.e.,
coloratura soprano; it is also the limit for pizzicato ,
after whi ch limit the sound becomes too dry;
(2) Haydn 's limit;
(3) Beethoven•s limit; also the l imit of free orchestra-
playing. beyond which only easy passages in single notes
•
and sus tained notes (single or double) can be used;
•
(4) the limit in the early scores of Wagner reached � below
this Af ; the latter was intro duc ed in the "Ring";
(5) Rimsky-Korsakov • s
point.
11
Kitezh 11; no fingerboard beyond this
..,
•
4. Quality
The basic resources (besides the ones which
we have already described) of special tone-qualities on
the stringed-bow instruments and decidedly contrasting
with each other are the mute (double-reed quality, marked
con sordino) and the harmonics or overtones (purest
quality: sine-wave; no vibrato).
The mute o�� be put on
(con sordino) or taken off (senza sordino) wherever the
composer desires, providing he gives enough time to the
performer to make such a change.
t
•
L
34.
u
Lesson CCLXI.
Harmonics on the violin are produced by
touching instead of pressing the string.
The scale of
harmonics can be only approximated 1n our system of musical
notation .
Harmonics are a natural phenomenon corresponding
to what 1s known in mathematics
. as " natural harmonic series",
i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, a, 9, • • • •
The sound of harmonics co-rresponds to simple
ratios of frequencies and to the partial distribution of a
sounding body.
'
In the case of strings, harmonics correspond
to the division of a string into uniform secti ons.
These
sections are in inverse proportion to the order of a harmonic.
•
Thus, in order to get the fundament-al (which is
considered the first harmonic) , it is necessary to let the
entire string vibrate.
In order to get the second harmonic,
it is necessary to let the two halves of the string vibrate
The zero point between the two halves 1s known
separately.
as "knot".
of the knot.
The finger must touch (not press) at the point
Thus breaking the en tire length of the string
into two halves, you allow the upper half (which is closer to
the bridge) to vibrate.
•
The higher the harmonic, the shorter the partial
division of the string (and the higher the frequencies).
The correspondence between the divisions of the
string and the order of harmonics is as follows •
•
35.
Division of the string.
C
Order of the harmonic.
l . . • • • • • • • • • • •
1 . . . . . . fi • • •
.,
2
-13 . . . . .
-. . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
2
3
4
• • • • • • • • • • • • • 5
5
1
6
.
6
Beyond this limit harmonics produced on the stringed
- . . . . . ,, .
•
. . . . .
bow instruments become impractical, except perhaps for the
double-bass seventh harm onic.
What violinrsts usually do not
know, and what the composer should know is th�t every knot in
the same subdivision (denominator) produces identical harmonics .,
Figure XI •
•
String
¼.
•
( 2)
--_:>
- .. --____
::> B
A E_-_
__ E---�
�
K,
1/�
1/4
1/s-
C
¼
¼
36 .
The practical conse quences of this situation are
the diversified ways of getting a harmonic in a passage where
a violinist may thil1k it impossible,
Imagine a regular rapid
passage which brings you to the upper (c loser to the bridge)
part of the fingerboard.
Now assume you want to use the third
A violinis� would try to reach the point K , in
Fig.XI (2) • while touching the string at the point K 2 would
harmonic.
produce the same harmonic.
As more careful composers (Wagner, for instance)
indicate in musical notation by a diamond-shaped note
(
<>, ,
'-
etc.) the point of the finger-contac t with
the string, it is possible to carry out the above principle
•
to a practical end •
Each string is subject to the same physical
conditions, so far as harmoliios are concerned.
the string, the more pronounced the harmonics.
The longer
Thus, the
quality of, harmonics increases in the following orde r of
instruments:
(1) Violin
(2 ) Viola
(3) Ce llo
(4 ) Bass
it sounds.
The lower the order of the harmonic, the ric her
This means that lower harmoni cs still form
physically their own harmonics (or the harmonics of the
se cond order).
Thus it is correct to state that, let us say,
37.
the third harmonic of the Bass is denser than the third
harmonic of the •Cello, and that the latter is denser than
the third harmonic of the Viola, etc.
But the sixth harmonic
of the 'Cello may be not as dense as the second harmonic of
the Violin.
Here is a complete table of harmonics for the
string tuned in c, which can be transposed to any other
tuning.
The large notes indicate the sound of the open
string, the diamond notes indicate the point of finger-contact
•
with the string and the small notes indicate,'the resulting
· pitch of the harmonic .
Figure XII .
'
-
\
i
\
-
+
+
1'
*-
..-- .1.&.
+-
•
38.
Fractions �dicate the frequency ratios.
black notes single out the impractical cases.
All
With regard to equal temperament the corres
ponding contact points (K) are practically exact:
2
y ,
3
2 '
4
3 '
16
9
16 is very slightly lower
9
-4 ,
•
25
16 '
6 and 12
5
o
10
4
are slightly lower
are slightly highe r
In addition to· all these harmonics; usually
called "natural barmonicsn, there are harmonics produced by
•
pressing the string with one finger and touching with
another.
The latter are called by the violinists "artificial
harmonics".
In reality harmonics cannot be artificial.
is a phenomenon.
sunset"?
What would you think of an "artificial
It
The pressing finger shortens the string and the
touching finger produces the respective partial subdivision.
There is only one harmonic which is practical under such
conditions; the fourth harmcuatg, The pressing finger is
always the first finger and the to uching finger is always
the fourth.
The practical advantage of this device is its
chromatic universality, which permits the performance of any
melodies in the form of harmonics .
•
39 ..
Figure XIII .
/
£>
-e-
••
•
�,-
-e-
-
-
u
�, 0
B ., Viola
Viola differs from violin mainly in its tone
quality and in the possibilities for virtuo-sity.
The tone
quality is "'somber'-' as compared to that of the violin.
technique of perform&nce is more difficult than on the
violin.
The
The reason for this is that though the dimensions
of the viola are greater, the system of fingering remains
the same.
Thus, playing viola requires greater stretching
of fingers.
In most cases, the unsuccessful but broadhanded
and practically-minded violinists become violists.,
It is
interesting to mention that one of the best composers of
today, Paul Hindemith, is one of the best violists of today.,
For many years he was the leader and the violist of the
excellent "Amar-Hindemith Quartette" .
He composed works for
this neglected instrument in the form of a concerto, sonata .
and unaccompanied suite.
The tuning of viola is one fifth lower than that
of the violin.
The alto:t and the treble clefs are used in
notation of the viola parts.
40,
Figure XIV.
Tuning
The range of viola for the orchestra use shall
not exceed a ninth from each of t h e lower t hree strings
(C, G, D) and be not more th an a twelfth from the upper
In writing for viola solo, the upper string
string (A) .
.
'
can be used within a range of two octaves.
-U
Figure XV .
Range
•
=-I
�
••
•
_J
j
•
-
lt
.e.
I
�
'
•
•
It is correct to say that viola is related to
violin as two to three.
All forms of technica1 executi on correspond to
that of t he violin.
u
T he parts written for the viola shall
not be limited in any respect, as t he limitat ions of
virtuosity do not concern orchestral parts.
•
•
41 .,
•
Lesson CCLXII.
C . Violoncello
Violonc.ello means a small violone, which was the
bass viol of the viol family.
name in spite of its size.
This is why it has a diminutive
This instrument is commonly
called cello, which does not make any sense, but ·conveys the
association through the established use of this word.
better to write " 'cello" (with apostrophe in front) .
It is
Being held in a different position from the violin
•
and the viola and exceeding the latter in size ( • cello is
.
related to viola as one to two and to violin as one to three) ,
•cello requires a different type of technique in fingering.
The intervals on the fingerboard are wider, and the stretching
is greater.
Thoug h the thumb does not have to support the
instrument, it seldom participates in playing and is used on
special occasions only (mainly for pressing the string while
playing harmonics) .
The thumb is indicated as " 9 " •
All
other fingers are· numbered in the same way as on the violin.
'Cello is tuned in fifths and one octave lower
than viola.
Bass (F) , tenor (C) and treble (G) clefs are
commonly used.
Contemporary composers in most cases ·have
abolished the tenor cle f, bu t the •cellists have to know it
well, because most composers of the past used it in their
scores.
,,
42 .
u
Figure XVI .
Tuning
,
-•
V
-e-
-
-
•
The range of 'cello for orchestra use shall not
•
exceed a ninth from each of the lower three strings (C, G, D)
and a twelfth from the upper string (A) .
In_ solo playing,
however, the latter can have a two-octave range.
Figure XVII,.
Range
••
••
I,_
J
-L
-
s
r
j
'
'
••
•
�
1,.
J
It is customary in an ordinary passage-playing
to make transitions from string to string in one position,
rather than to change positions on one string.
In case of
chromatic scalewise passages positions are frequently changed .
The usual fingering for the lower positions 1s
based on the following principle:
(1) semitones are played by adjacent fingers;
u
(2) whole tones by alternate fingers;
43 ..
(5) chromatic scales are played with continuous changes
of positions, each position emphasizing three fingers :
the first, the second and the third;
(4) all executions of double-stops, chords and rapid
arpeggio are based on the above forms of normal fingering;
as a consequence, the chords which are easy to play are
either in open positions or contain open strings ;
(5) perfect fifths are played with one finger on two
adjacent strings;
(6) all "artificial harmonics" are played with the thumb
'
'
(pressing) and the third finger (touching) .
Examples of fipgering
Figure XVIII.
•
0
0
0
0
•
0 4
-• .• � r
0
'
I
/
0
I
I[
:m:
I'
t
JiL
••
••
4
3
I
:l,
J
.%, '
44 .
All the forms of bowµig, practical for the
violin, are practical for the •cello .
As the bow of the
'cello is proportionately shorter than that of the violin,
the composer must use long durations of s ingle notes and of
passages, emphasized by the bow moving in one direction,
with discrimination.
One of the rcello •s features are harmonics.
to long strings, they are very sonorous.
Due
For the same reason
pizzicato is richer on the •cello than on the violin.
Pizzicato glissando (marked: pi�z. and a slu'r over the two
'"
'
bordering notes) , an effect similar to Hawaiia� Guitar is
v ery colorful.
See "Four Hindus Songs" for voice and
orchestra by Maurice Delage •
Glissando of harmonics is another effect to which
In order to· execute it, touch
• cello 1s particularly suited.
the string at the nut and move the finger quite fast toward
the central knot of the string.
harmonics from high to low ones�
This causes a sequence of
Moving in reverse, i.e.,
from the central knot to the nut, causes the reversal of the
sequence of ha.:rmonics ..
There is no need to move the finger
beyond the central knot as the string has an axis of symmetry
for all the lmots, and such a . finger movement would produce
the same harmonics as when moved from the central knot back
to the nut.
The resulting effect has great color value and
has been used by the best orchestrally minded compose�s .
sounds like a rapidly moving arpeggio of a large seventh
chord.
•
It
-
45.
A combination of such harmonics glissando
played by several • cellists on different strings, and also
in different directions if desired, produces a shimmering
effect of fantastic harps, subtle and fragile •
•
The adopted notation of this effect is as
follows (black notes show the main points of the actual
sounds, as all the points cannot be expressed in our musical
notation) .
Figure
.0
XIX .
0
0
•
,_
See Rimsky-Korsakov •s opera "Christmas Night".
D. Double Bass (Contrabass)
Double bass (corresponding to the antiquated
violone) has four strings usually.
•
Figure XX.
The y are tuned by fourths .,
Tuning
,
...••
�
�
,i
�
.....,...-,--
-�
•
- -
,_
�
?F
0
46 ..
In XVIII and XIX Centurie� when a lower note was
required, the bassists re-tuned the lower string to E, to E �
or to D.
In the XX Century the problem was solved by the
addition of a fifth string (below the fourth regular string ) ,
•
which is tuned in c.
All large symphonic and operatic
organizations have at least half of tr1eir string basses
equipped with five strings.
High positions are more seldom used on the string
bass trlan on any other stringed-bow instrument •
•
follows.
The range, practical for orchestral' uses, is as
Double bass always sounds one octave lower than
the written range.
0
Figure
XXI
-= I
-
r
-"Rf\N€,E :
(�
-
J
-,
,,t
+
Plz."L L11W111"
All forms of bowing and effects, including the
use of mutes, pizz. glissando, harmonics and harmonics
glissando are perfectly suitable for the bass, and are
unjustly neglected.
Fingering technique ru1d intonation are the chief
difficulties of this instrument.
• Tl1e fundamentals of fingering are as follows .,
47.
u
Figure XXII .
...
0
••
f
"
"
-e
...
....
..
I'
i
.. '-1
'
0
••
-' -
+
�
,...
"'1
•
""" '�-
The last case is quite difficult and must be
avoided, unless absolutely necessary.
As higher positions require closer spacing, it
is easier to play the bass in the higher positions�
•
The
purity of intonation increases, but it becomes more and more
difficult to get a pleasing tone r
It i s best not to use the
double-stops at all as they sound muddy in low register anyway.
However, certain forms of pedal and strata can be used.
Figure XXIII .
Example:
•
-
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chords are impractical, even when possible.
Some
composers have written solo passages and phrases for the bass
and exceeded on such occasions the establi shed orchestral
range.
See Rimsky-Korsakov • s opera "Coq D • Or", �rhere a
bass solo is written in the alto (C) clef.
There are very few outstanding .bassists who appear
48 •
u
•
as soloists.
Probably the best of all bassists in the whole
history of this instrument is Serg�i Koussevitsky (at present
the conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra) .
When
Kou.ssevitsky was younger he frequently gave recitals on the
Double Bass, as well as played concertos wit h his own
orchestra (which was known as Koussevitsky Orchestra in
Moscow, Russia).
As the bass literature is limited,
Koussevitsky often played his own transcriptions of concertos
written for some other neglected instruments.
Thus, one of
his favorites was Mozart • s concerto for a Bassoon (Fagotto)
with orchestra.
Radio City
Russia .
Music
Another accomplished bassist (at present with
Hall Orchestra in New York) also comes from
His name is Michel Krasnopolsky.
In Russia, when
giving recitals, he played among other things my own �Suite
for a Double-Bass a:rid Piano" composed in 1921.
When used as a solo instrument, Double Bass must be
tuned a tone higher
becomes a bass in D.
a11d
read a minor seventh down.
It really
Some of the outstand ing violin-makers in
Italy made a few excellent basses , which are slightly smaller
in size aild permit the tuning one tone higher.
better in tone too.
They are
In Jazz double bass is used mostly as a percussive
instrument: it is plucked (pizzicato). and slapped ..
It is
interesting to mention that in Jazz playing, where virtuosity
on some orchestral instruments leaves the classical way of
playing far behind, the development of the performer • s
49 .,
technique influenced mostly the right and not tbe left
hand and, even then, not in bowing.
This particular form of virtuosity produced
some proficient performers.
There are two duets for piano and double-bass
on ColUDbia records: "Blues" and "Plucked Again n (Columbia,
Jazz Masterwork, 35322) , with Jimmy Blanton (bass) ·and
Duke Ellington (piano) .
u
•
-
•
50.
u
Lesson CCLXIII.
I. The Flute Family
•
WOOD-WIND INSTRUMENTS
•
A. Flauto Grando (Flute)
This instrument, kno,vn as a "large flute" in
. �uxtaposition to the smallest member of t h is family known
as a "small flute" or Flauto Piccolo or just plain "Piccolo"
(wh ich is �s bad as "cello") , is a D- instrument without
transposition.
This means th at, whereas its acoustical scale
·
(the natural tones, i. e. , the tones produced by modification
of blowing, and not b y using holes and keys) is D, the tones
sound as they are written.
•
Tones which are not in the
acoustical scale are produced by means of six holes and a
number of keys (depending on the make) .
Gradual open ing of
the holes from the bell up shortens t h e air column and
produces the tones of the natural major scale in D, i. e. ,
d, e, f f, g, a_, b , C,:# . The following d is th e second natural
tone:.
(harmonic) from which the scale can be e xecuted further
in a similar fashion.
by means of keys.
All ch romatic intervals are filled out
The two (in some makes, th ree) tones below
the fundameµtal d are executed by extending the bore with a
pair of specially designed keys, which close instead of
opening the holes.
Being cylindrical on t h e outside, the pore of a
flute is an inverted cone inside (with a very slight deviation
from a cylind�r, though).
The shape of the bore and the form
51.
of exciting the air column directly (through an open hole),
instead of through a mouth-piece of any kind, attributes
the flute its whistle-like tone-quality.
•
Figure XXIV .
•
T
t
ij��MONIC!.
. -A
0
.I,;
3
lI
J,
"- l
-
- ti- - 4
, ,2
I
As the consequence of this construction, the
•
easiest keys for the flute are D, A, G, etc. , i. e., keys
adjacent to D through their signatures.
F lute is partic ularly suited for scalewise
passages (whi ch can be played at any practicable speed) ·and
close forms of arpeggio
(E, ) . The finger technique is
highly developed among flutists.
All forms of tremolo
legato (arpeggio of couplings), trills, rapid grace-note
scalewise passages are typical of a flute.
Another flute specialty is the multiple-tongue
effects: double, triple and quadruple, which as the name
shows, are accomplished by a rapid oscillatory tongue move
. ment.
There is no special notation for this effect, and
•
•
52.
G
every flutist knows it should be used when there is a
rapidly repeating pitch.
It must be understood that the term "legato"
•
•
(indicated by a tie) , as applied to flute as well as to
all wind instruments (including woodwind and brass) , means
a group of notes executed in one breath.
•
As non-legato,
staccato etc. are also executed in one breath for a group
of notes, legato means one breath without a renewal of the
tongue-attack •
•
The increase of the quantity of attacks augments
'
the volume of the instrument and should be used in all cases
when the natural volume is weak, yet harder blowing may
0
•
produce the next natural tone.
As a special device for both
increasing the volume and giving the tremolo effeet frulato
(flutter-tongue) is used.
In order to ex ecute frulato
(which is only practical in the high register) it is necessary
to pronounce (in a whispering manner) a continuous rolling of
frrr.
The notation for frulato is : - for the period of
duration of the note.
Because blowing on 'the flute is immediate, the air
column in the bore i s quite unstable.
sensitiyity of registers�
characteristics.
This causes great
Each register has its own dynamic
The consideration of the latter is of the
utmost importance in orchestration.
Co�temporary manufacturers
are constantly seeking a scientific solution for equalization
C
of registers.
To put it plainly, each register, unless very
53.
skilfully handl ed, sounds like a somewhat different
instrument.
When one melodic group occupies more than one
register, the contrast between the registers becomes very
undesirable. Some old-fashioned minds think it· desirable
.
to have nearl.y each tone in a different flavor, because they
believe it attributes individuality to the instrument.
This
assumption is psychologically wrong, because each sound does
not sound per se, but in connotation with the preceding and
the following sounds-
•
Imagine a book where each character
is printed in a different type.
It certainly attributes
.,
individuality to each letter, but at the same time makes the
process of reading far from being pleasurable.
•
This argument about uniformity of tone-quality
throughout the entire range is the main weapon of attack
.
against�lectronic instruments, because such instruments have
a much superior qualitative stability than the woodwind
instruments.
In other words, electronic instruments are
condemned by the reactionaries, whereas Ya·sha Heifetz tries
hard to make it unnoticeable when his bow changes from one
string to another (which i s equivalent of the ch�ges of
registers).
•
.
Figure XXV .
of the Flute
Range and Registers
- Low
�EptllN\
:3' +-.IL.-
_..
l
LL._
:._----"'i,�
�
SoF'T", J>E.14.SE.,
\1 1'1 5i°f\ &LE.
PytJA�,e,
RAN�E �
•
tt � �
+
-
HlqH
.
.2
I
I
,
1 R lttt ,
I
I EJC�ESSII/£
I
!=LEX I &U:.
I
I
I
fLEX I BL.l
I
)I
I
--
---
I
I
I
IW\EJHVN\ J)E:tfSE.)
54.
-
I
I
WHI !,1'l.f��
,
..,..,
Loll.P,
tJof lltlf!.EASAII("
SHRII.I..
I
I
I
-fritH, '/ER.'{ LDIJ.P,
I
I.E�5 PUA�Atff"
I
I ,.R,: 1t ��f : l).�-.-t1,f ;o.t:f'i-f : p.R,� 11� Hf
I
'
I
I
I
'
B. Flauto Piccolo (Piccolo)
•
F.P. is a diminutive flute and pos�esses all
the main characteristics of the large flute.
••
Its acoustical
scale is also in D, but its range is much more limited.
lower register is practi cally useless, except for some
humorous effects.,.
The
The agility of this instrument is truly
remark"able, and particularly so in the scalewise passages.
Figure XXVI.
•
Range and Regi_sters of the Flute Piccolo
(Sounds one oc tave higher than written)
r-
,,
- -I
I
I
•
I IMPRACf'ICAL
I ANP J)IFFltLIL.T.
I
I
I
I
u
e)
c. -Flauto Contralto (Alto Flut l
s) :
pe
ty
r
(o
es
iz
s
o
tw
1n
s
me
co
F .C .
F)
(used
more
than
in
G
n
1
o
t
l
a
r
t
n
o
C
( 1) F l .
"
" F (used less than in G)
"
(2 )
Both types are used a great deal in operatic and
symphonic scoring.
extendin
The main value of the alto flutes lies not in
the ran e below the ordinar
flute
but in
ivin
a better gu&lity and a more stable range corresponding to the
•
....
o.
low register of flauto g r a n d
fourth
a
perfect
sounds
Contralto
in
G
Fl .
•
•
written range.
lo,ver
than
the
)
s
e
n
o
t
(5 semi
fifth
sol.lllds
a
perfect
in
F
Contralto
Fl.
range.
semitones) lower than the written
(7
tone quality.
better
the
tv10
has
a
of
The first
Figure XXV I I •
•
Range and Registers_ of the Alto Flutes
-----�_;;,__
FL.e.
'" �- FLJ
l� F
.SOIi
-
-
--
_- -
+
•
�
56.
There is no need to use high register of alto
instruments, as the regular type gives a better tone
quality.
Other types, such as Bass Flutes, are obsolete
They produce tones 1n qua) ity somewhere between
nowadays.
. ocarino and an empty bottle.
•
•
'
.
•
•
•
•
,
57.
Lesson CCLXIV.
II. The Clarinet (
S ingle-Reed) Family
A. Clarinetto (Clarinet) in B v and A
This instrument has a cylindric bore, which
causes, according to Helmholtz, the appearance of only odd
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, . • • ) harmonics.
are absent.
The pair-numbered harmonics
This situation creates a gap of 18 semitones
between the fundamental and the next (i.e., the third)
appearing harmonic.
Somehow the designers of this instrument
succeeded in reducj.ng the number of holes and keys considerably (usually 13) though theoretically it would be required
to have all the 18, in order to produce a chromatic scale
G
covering the gap.
•
From the performer 's angle, clarinet is a
difficult instrument to master.
However, this should not
worry the composer, as accomplished clari netists are really
in abundance.
The main consideration concerning the composer
is that while approaching the third harmonic, the tone of the
clarinet weakens for about the last 6 semitones.
The
register between the fundamental and the thir d harmonic is
known - as chalumeau (French, from Latin "calamus" - reed;
originally - a single reed instrument, with a built-in reed,
now obsolete; probably the ancestor of clarinet).
A
special tone-qual ity, in addition to the usual one, and
which is hard to get, corresponds to the chalumeau register
C
and is known as subtone (soft, delicate and tender).
•
58.
Starting with the third harmonic and going up, the tone
cha nges noticeably. Of course it is
quality of a clarinet
•
the task of an accomplished performer to neutralize this
difference.
The sound on the clarinet is produced by
•
blowing into a detachable mouth-piece, to whicl1 the reed is
attached.
A complete chromatic scale is produced by the
various types of keys and by holes which are covered by
fingers (by special keys on the bass clarinet) .
The clarinet
ists of American dcµice orchestras are able ,to produce a
\.
glissando ( i •.e., continuous pitch modulation between two
This is accomplished by the ambouchure
frequencies) .
(which usually means "the assumed position of lips combined
• •
with lip-pressure«).
Symphonic and operatic clarinetists
are not trained to play glissando.
All clarinets are usually written as cl arinets
in c .
Under such conditions, the scale of natur al tones
appears as follows:
Figure XXVIII.
1
•
C
ti
-
5
-
.f. l"'}
'l
a.
'f
f.£
-
1t
0
f�
•
59.
The clarinet in C was discarded a long time ago,
as its tone quality was not as satisfactory as that of the
•
V and in A (some contemporary manufacturers
clarinets
in
B
•
make an extra hole and key to compensate the lower semitone
on the B '- clarinet; thus it can play the parts written for
the A- clarinet; in some other instances, mechanical adjust
ments have been made in order to obtain a combined version
•
of the B � and the A clarinets) •
Though some individual performers get far beyond
•
the common range, there is a silent international code of
''
ethics, by which composers limit triemselves by the written
_g_ of the second octave.
•
Figure }QCIX .
Range
and Registers of the Clarinet
•
•
-
-
.,,�cr
�
...-.1,..-;;0;;;;:;
,.J:
1
Riett , MEILovJ,
S'fA &� ;
PyNftlttlt.. RAil4'E�
!
:
'
I
:
I
�wlllt( 0( L�ltl�I.,
.PE.lie.Rf£ FRI>"' :"-�t11>,1J'1 � 1lfE'
' i"1t1s Po,..,-;
1 ,AAAAa'Ett OF Mll!>tt. ,
: J>y'tlAlll\•t W!I\IC�A!,-,�; : �NP J)INA� •e s;
I
ttr � 1 ;
IIAI.S1"A&L£;
fro/ �s
: �.!AMI<, R�..E.:
I
I
'
I
'
1H1l : kLOw 1H,!» Poi.tr;
1
: PRo.J>uce
I FLEXt &U: t>'t'NAIW\ll. I
I
: RAftlC.E:+
I
� ff
SKILL FIJL
,-r
�F01tME1ts d.Afl/ �TILL
f,
&11'" 4e,41::�ALLY
I� EASlf� 1o Pt..p,y
I
: l)'J'HAMIC. �AIJ�e : �
I
I
I
'
I
J;
7 -ff
I
I
•
•
•
60.
For the clarinet in B P- flat the above table
sounds one tone lower.
This means that the composer must
write his parts for the B� instrument one tone higher than
he expects to hear the actual sounds�
For instance, the
pa�t which sounds in the key of C must be written in the
key of· Q.
Thus clarinet in BV acous_tically is a Q instrument,
as its fundamental tone (by sound) is £•
•
Likewise the parts for the clarinet in A must
be :,tri tten, three semi ton.es_ pj._gher than they are expected to
sound.
Thus the above table sounds three semitones lower.
Parts expected to sound in the key of C must be written in
. -
the key of E �.
Thus clarinet in A acoustically is a C ::tf:
instrument, as its fundamental tone (by sound) is c -.il'. ·
It was believed in the XIX Century that the B'
clarinet represents the masculine qu�ity, that it is more
substantial but less delicate than the feminine quality of
the A- clarinet.
However, today skilful performers can
P
obtain both characteristics on B - clarinet.
Considering the quality of manufacture and the
skill of con temporary performers, we can say that clarinet
can play practically everything.
Its specialities are:
rapid diatonic and chromatic passages, tremolo legato and
trills.
Staccato is preferable in its soft form.
Arpeggio
of the E , form is very grateful both upward and downward.
B. Clarinetto Piccolo in D and in E f;, .
The first instrument (D) is used in symphonic and
61.
operatic orchestras and the second (E�) , in the military
bands .
Both these instruments are inferior in their tone
quality, as c ompared with the clarinets in B� and A .
F -:#=.
The acoustical range of the D- clarinet is in
It is written one whole tone lower than it i.s expected
to sound.
The parts which a.re written in the key of � 11,
sound in the key of c.
•
•
G.
The acoustical range of the E V-c larin et 1s in
It is written three semitones lower than it is expected
The parts which are written in the' key of A, sound
in the key of c.
to sound.
Except for the tone-quality, the piccolo clarinets
can be favorably compared with the regular clarinets: their
mobility is as high.
c. Clarinetto Contralto (Alto Clari net)
a.pd Como di Bassetto (Bassethorn) .
Clarinetto contralto is usual ly an E .,, but sometimes
an F instrument.
Thus it should be written a major sixtp and
a perfect fif,th higher, respectively, than the sounding keys.
This instrument is so constructed that its lowest written note
•
is .£ below the usual �.
Its tone-quality can be described as
more "hollow" than the tone of a regular clarinet .
clarinet.
Corno di bassetto has a narrower bore than the
It looks somewhat like the miniature version of tl1e
clarinetto basso (bass clarinet) .
"reedy" than that of the clarinet.
•
Its tone-quality is more
Bassethorn is an instrument
in F: it is written a perfect fifth higher than it sounds .
Today basset horn becomes more and more obsolete : alto clarinet
in E l, takes its place.
D. •Clarinetto Basso (Bass Clarinet) in B; and A
The A instrument is seldom used outside of Germany.
Both th ese in struments sound one octave below their respective
regular clarinets.
This means that the B P- basso is written a
major ninth higher than it sounds; A- basso is written a minor
tenth higher than it sounds.
•
treble and bass clef are used.
•
In German scores often both
T h e rule is that w h en using the bass clef, write
one octave below t h e correspond.i.ng note ·or the treble clef.
•
That is the transposition of sound from the bass clef is only
•
a whole tone, or a tone-and-a - h alf down •
Both these instruments are manufactured with and
e to c.
v,ithout the lower extension from -
The B'- basso without lower range extension is used
by the dance orch estras, whereas the B P- basso which reaches
the lower .£. (Q►- by the sound) is used in symphonic and
operatic scoring.
These instruments have quite a sinister tone in
their lower register.
It is wise not to write for the bass
clarinet above d of the second octave.
Bass-clarinet possesses
somewhat less mobility than the smaller clarinets.,
There is also a contrabass or Eedal clarinet, a
monstrous affair which has to be suspended on special stands
•
63.
and which is very hard to play.
Richard Strauss used one
in his "Electra", and only Germans c ould play this instrument.
It sounds one octave below the bass clarinet (it is also i n
B �) and has an awe-inspiring quality.
III. The Saxophone (Single-Reed) Fami,ly
Saxophone is one of the numerous creations of
Adolf Sax, an eminent instrument designer of XIX Ce ntury.
This instrument is a crossbreed of oboe (due to it s conic b ore)
and clarinet (due to its single-reed mouth-piece) •
•
Very few composers used this instrument in the
•
'
XIX Century (one of them was George Bizet) and , eventually it
•
became quite obsolete, with the ex ception of the military bands
•
in Fran ce and Belgium, which have been using saxophones widely .
The original saxophone family consisted of the
instruments in C and in F.
Soprano Saxophone in C
Alto
Tenor
Baritone
Bass
n
"
"
"
"
n
F
C
" F
C
.American manufacturers rejuvenated interest toward
.this instrument.
They succeeded in c onstructing saxophones of
a more improved • design .
American saxophones as played by
American saxophonists introduced a whole new style of music
and musical execution •
.American-made saxophones are so flexible that any
)
64.
type of part can be written for it.
Rapid scales, arpeggio,
tremolo legato, trills, staccato, glissando are all possible
and grateful on this instrument.
The last two or three
decades produced a number of outstanding virtuosi,- many of
whom are Negroes, and many of whom are skilful improvisers .
It is due to the wide influence of Jazz and Jazz-playing that
saxophone manufacture became a considerable industry.
The standard dance-band combinations customarily
use 4 or 5 saxophones.
•
In some instances this quantity varies •
It is quite common that a saxophonist is at tpe same time a
clarinetist. Som e of these performers are equally as good on
both instruments.
•
In the earlier days of American Jazz, (and also in
some instances in Europe) there v,ere some ensembles consisting
only of saxophones, but they have not survived.
The .American family of saxophones is tuned in
•
Figure XXX.
(please see next page)
65 ..
u
I
(Fig. XXX)
•
Saxophones
Written range: For all saxophones
c5'"
.
2
�
i
jJ
J
••
'
-�
-
Spunding range :
�
�
�-
•
�
Soorano in B ti,
A t.n in
'T'
R
-- n
....
.
•�
•
10..
1n H p
The soprano and the bass are seldom used today.
clef.
All saxophone parts are written in the treble
There is no noticeable difference of registers in
a good performance, and it is for this reason that we have
omitted the range subdivisions.
0
66 .
Lesson CCLXV.
IV. The Opoe (Double-�eed) Fam�ly
A. Oboe
Oboe is an instrument of ancient origin.·
In its
primitive form it has been in wide use thro ughout Asia.
of the oboe 's ancestors was the Hellenic aulos, which was
One
used for the expression of passion.
Blowing thro ug h a narrow opening of the flatly
folded reed (usually called �o uble reed) requires strong lungs
and a peeuliar technique of breathing.
Some· of th� Asiatics
(Persians, for example) can play the oboe-like double-reed
instruments with uninterrupted sound (like the Scottish bag
•
pipe) .
These performers usually hold a reserve supply of air
in one cheek, which is exhaled, i.e., blown into the reed,
while the lungs are inhaling the future supply of air.
The contemporary oboe has a conic bore, which
characteristic stimulates the appearance of the full scale of
natural tones (harmonics).
Without additional keys, oboe acoustically can be
considered an instrument in D, like the flute.
the flute, is not a transposing instrument.
Oboe, like
Most oboes of
European manufacture have £ of the small octave as its lowest
tone.
American-made oboes re- a ch £1:i', immediately below it.
-
It is customary not to use tl1e eboe above f of the second
octave.
Due to its construction oboe is a slow-speaking
instrument.
Only passages of moderate speed are possible on
67 ,.
t his instrument.
Oboe is valued mainly for its character
istic tone-quality, which can be described as flnasal" and
"warm".
All types "of passages are possible, including
•
tremolo legato and trills, providing they are executed at a
speed which seems moderate compared to flutes and clarinets .,
is the
One of the most valuable characteristics of the oboe
•
versatility and distinct character of the attack forms.
The
legato, the portamento, the soft and particularly the hard
•
staccato appear on the oboe with a clear di�tinction .
The density of the oboe's tone decreases consider-
·
ably in the upper part of its range .,
The low register is
direction of decreasing frequencies..
The most flexible and
somewhat heavy and has a natural volume increase in the
expressive part of the rang e is the middle register .,
tones are thin and shrill ,.
High
Figure XXXI .
•
Range and Registers of the Oboe
(please see next page)
I
C
•
(Fig. XXXI)
-
3
it•
.. pT
.
-•
-
.
c;.,
•
l.OW
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eESr R�E
-
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1DNE.•QuALl1)' �Row�, , .SHRILL foP>Je-�uALrry·;
I 'J)yN�MIC.S:
'f.t 1� �E. R;
l>'J'fllA� ,c.� :
I
-
-
r
£
,
-,
F
c5'
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If ;
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1 �J> 01'1&."(
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Loi.IP ILiII l
IN It
•
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� A 5ol0 CA,111 � f\
B . Oboe D'Amore
A mezzo-soprano type of oboe which is now
extinct ..
J.s. Bach used it in his "Christmas Oratorio" .,
It was revived by Richard Strauss in his "Sinfonia Domestica".
This is a transposing instrument in A \7.
•
•
•
•
69 ..
Figure XXXII .
Written :
t-e-
IJ
Range of Oboe D • Amore
Sounds :
,,
")
...I
/
0
/
/
0
•
c. Corno Ingl�se (English Horµ)
0
Th e immediate predecessor of this instrument is
oboe di cacchia 1hunter's horn) , now obsolete-.
The contemporary
version of corno Inglese (also known as oboe contralt o)
represents an instrument similar in most respects to oboe,
•
but sounding one perfect fif th lower�
instrument in F.
It is a transposing
•
The middle octave is its best register for an
expressive solo.
The low register is still denser and
heavier than that of an ordinary oboe.
The high register is
seldom used beyond the written & (sounds _g) of the second
octave.
All other characteristics correspond to oboe .
It
is still somewhat slower-speaking instrument than t he oboeEnglish horn is exceptionally suitable for the
expression of passion and suf fering.
it is often given a solo ..
In orchestral scoring
One of the famous solos is in
Wagner ' s "Tristan and Isolde" (Prelude t o the third act) .
•
70 .,
Figure XXXIII.
Range of Corno Inglese
..
WRl
'f
ff�
II
0
'�
�
. P•)�T
J
II
•
I
I
.
-•
Sn"�b�
(�i ) q1'
•
-f:/"'
"""
.
D. Hecke�phone (paritone Oboe)
of German
The baritone oboe is an instrument
'
manufacture (made by Heckel) and in its perf�eted form was
introduced in about 1905 A . D.
.
It has a quality of over
whelming richness and expressiveness.
Richard Strauss used
it first in his opera "Salome"; Ernst Krenek in his opera
"Sprung Ueber den Schatten" ("Leap Over the Shadow") .
It is
an instrument well deserving wide use together with oboe and
•
English horn.
Heckelphone is made to sound one octave below oboe;
it sounds one octave below the written range .,
Its size is so
big that the bell of the instrument rests upon the floor,
while the performer is playing in sitting position.,
The key and hole system is designed to resemble
that of an ordinary oboe, which construction makes it easy
for an oboist to master the heckelphone •
•
As . th e range and the registers of this instrument
exactly correspond to that of an oboe (the lowest tone is ]2,i:r),
•
L
71.
C
but sound one octave lower, there is no need for a table of
range and registers.
V. The B assoon (Double-Reed) Fa mily
A. Fagotto (Bassoon)
The name "fagotto" derives from "faggot": a bundle
of sticks; the name " bassoon" from the associati9n with bass
register .,
Bassoon is an instrument with a very long conic
bore (about eight feet), which is folded upon itself, somewha t
•
in a wanner of letter "u".
....
This u-shape makes it possible to
have a system of accessible holes and keys • . Some of the keyholes produce only one tone (the lower keys) and some, two
r
\._..,
(octave variation by lip-pressure which is easy to produce and
•
which is typical of a bassoon) •
Being an instrument with a comic bor·e and a
double-reed mouth-piece, the bassoon may be considered as a
bass of the double-reed group, i.e ., , it is a natural bass to
the oboes.
The main difference between the oboes and the
bassoon lies in the fact th at the la tter has an additional
section, which extends its low register.
Under the same con�itions of fingering (with the
basic six holes closed), the bassoon is one perfect twelfth
below oboe, i.e., under the conditions which produce the
middle £ on oboe, bassoon produces _g_ one twelfth below.
The range of the bassoon (for all practical
•
•
♦
72 .
,
purposes) begins with the .£� of contra-octave and ends
with d of the first octave.
The b� tone at the lower end
is of somewhat inferior quality than all other tones of the
lov1 register.
•
This instrument 1s capable of mobility
noticeably greater th an that of an oboe.
Various forms of
arpeggio (practically in all expansions), octaves and leaps
in general, as well as rapid scalewise passages, tremolo
legato and trills constitute the versatile· technique of this
instrument.
The attacks are distinct.
Lega'to, portamento,
''
soft and hard st�ccato (the latter being bassoon ' s specialty,
and possible at a considerable speed) c an be executed with
quick changes.
Bassoon parts are written 1n the bass and the
tenor (though alto-clef may be used as well) clefs ,
not a transposing instrument.
•
It is
The dynamic peculiarities of the bassoon require
a particular attention on the part of the composer,
The low
register (from .£� of the contra-octave to £ of the small
octave) is the most powerful part of bassoon's range.
It
weakens slightly toward the mid dle register (this begins
c of the middle
with c of the small octave and ends with -
octave) , which is considerably ·weaker than the low regist�r,
The high register, from £ to _g_ of the middle octave is
somewhat harsh; it becomes very mellow from .&. of the middle
octave to d of the first octave.
Stravinsky is one of the
•
-
few composers who utilized effectively this upper region
(the opening bassoon solo at the begin.ning of the "Rite of
Spring ").
Figure XXXIV!
Rang� and Regis_ters of the !3assoon
J)f.H�f, �•tt:t Q\)Al-rl"(;
Pt"AW\ tC., R.AiJ"e. �
njs/f
I
I
I
B. Fagottino (Tenoroon, Quµitfagott, Tenorfagott)
This instrument (now practically obsolete) was
built a perfect fourth arid a perfect fifth above the regular
bassoon.
Both types are transposing instruments: tenoroon
in E k,, sounding one perfect fourth higher than written and
tenoroon in F, sounding one perfect fifth higher than written.
The tone-quality of these instruments was inferior
to that of the regular bassoon.
74 .
c. Contrafagotto (Double-Bassoon1 Contra
bassponA Contrafagott) .
This instrument still of greater dimensions is
meant to be the lower octave-coupler to an ordinary bassoon.
The engineering quality of this instrument, being inferior
to that of a bassoon, causes i nferior tone-quality and less
exacting intonation.
The tone of thi s instrument is somewhat
dry and does not sound as healthy as the tone of the bassoon.
Its alertness is also somewhat lower.
As contrabassoon is an instrument ouilt
mainly to
'"
produce low frequenci es, it must not (except fQr some special
purpos es, such as creating associ ations of "humorous" or
"painful") be used beyond its regular middle register •
•'
Contrabassoon is a favorite instrument with many
composers.
Its sounding range is one octave lower than
Its lower register is considerably weaker than that
written.
of a bassoon.
Figure XXXV.
•
Range and Registers of the Contrabassoon
,-10
, •
,
•
I
-
�
I
' "
--
1,.£-
:J=
.
�
I
.
�
,.., 4n
�
75.
Lesson CCLXVI.
BRASS (WIND) INSTRUMENTS
I. Corno (French Horn).
Horn is an instrument with a long and rich history.
The immediate predecessor of the contemporary
three-valve chromatic French horn was the so-ealled natural
horn, capable of producing only the natural tones.
All other
tones on the natural horn were obtained by putting the fist
of the left hand into the bell and varying the depth of its
position within the bell.
.
the
The deeper the ffst
... is set,
'
lower the sound of the respec�ive natural tone.
This manner
of altering natural tones is based on the physical principle
of open and closed pipes : an open pipe so unds one octave
higher than the same pipe closed.
As the gradual conic pipe
(which is coiled around itself) extends in a horn to abo,ut
seven feet, the partial closing of this pipe by a fist, at
the bell, lowers the respective natural tone only by one or
two semitones.
This device does not cover all steps
chromatically, as the acoustical gaps between the second and
the third, and between the third and the fourth tones are too
.
,
great. It is for this reason that the parts written in the
XVIII and early XIX Cent uries were predominantly fanfare-like .
Eventually natural horns became obsolete.
Rimsky
Korsakov used natural horns in his opera "May Night" (when
chromatic horns were universally in use) for the sake of his
own amusement, which he called "self-discipline" .
-
. 76 .
In order to read scores by such composers as
Mozart and Beethoven, not mentioning Bach or Haendel, it is
important to have at least some basic information about the
sizes and the transpositionJkeys of the various horns, used
in not su ch a remote past .,
Natural horns were constr ucted in two main size-
groups: the alto horns and the basso horns.
All horns trans
pose downw�rd, i.e., they sound below the written range .,
Alto horns transpose directly to a designated interval,
indicated by the transpositional name of tha instrument.
'•
Basso horns, in addition to the alto transposition, sound one
octave lower (compare with the clarinet in B P and the bass-
clarinet in Bv) .,
The alto horns were construc ted in all chromatic
•
-
keys, e xcept G P •
The se· le ction of a particular horn was in
correspondence with the key in which a certain piece was
Basso horns were used, whe re reaahing of the lower
written .,
register was essential .,
Basso horn parts are known only in
three transpositions: the B P- basso, the A- basso and the
AP-
basso .
There was no octave confusion in interpretation
of the scores, because it was the alto horns that were usually
meant .,
The use of basso horn s was quite exceptional and the
cases where they were used were generally known.
For example,
horns in B�- basso were used in Beethovenrs Fourth Symphony
(written in the key of ��) .
Except for the use of valve s, whic h secure the
t
77.
entire chromatic scale, there is no noticeable difference
in the construction of th,e present day French horns
(including the conic mouth-piece) •
•
Blowing through a long narrow channel creates
such conditions, under which it is easy to "overblown the
fundamental tone of the scale.
tends to break i nto two halves.
That is, the air-column
For this reason, the
official ly recognized range of the horn begins with the
second tone.
From there on, everything is praetical up to
and including the twelfth natural tone.
is seldom used nowadays.
Th.e sixteenth tone
As the frequency increases, the
tone-quality becomes brighter.
•
We shall represent now the scal e of natural tones
for the hypothetical French horn in C.
As chromatic horns
used today are 1h !, the actual sounds appear one perfect
fifth below the written range if the part is written in the
treble clef; when using the bass clef, write the parts one
fourth below the intended pitch, or, stating it differentl y,
one octave below the treble clef.
Thus the transposition of
the French -horn, when written in the treble clef, is exactly
the same as that of an English horn.
Thus:
and
19' ()
3
sound
alike:
e
t
{Q :
u
-
:I
78.
This cutibersome octave-variation as well as the
whole idea of pitch-transposition is a survival of an old
The sooner it will be abolished, the better, as
tradition.
no one gains by this transpositional technique, which is a
constant source of complications and confusion.
During Wagner 's time. and later, chromatic French
horns in E were used together with that in F.
They are
abolished today, for the reason of superior tone-quality
obtainable on the horns in F.
Figure XXXVI •
Scale of Natural tones of the French Horn
W�If'(f..lJ;
8
�
:;:
'
5ou..JJ)!>t {tfOlt�
I
I�
r�
F) 4
sI•-•
••
I
,_
-
"
Jo
,2,
I"
i2'
.,
1"
�
'"'
•
Only in very exceptional cases is the French horn
written one or two semitones above the twelfth tone.
The
best tone-quality for solos and cantilena lies between the
fourth and the twelfth natural tones.
Fre11ch horn is a
direct continuation of tuba ' s timbre in its lower portion of
the range.
From its fourth to twelfth tones it acquires a
gradually growing characteristic of lucidity; in its upper
0
79.
range. French horn blends well with clarinets and particu-
larly with flutes; in its lower range, with trom bon�s, tuba
and bassoons.
In this sense, French horn is an intermediary
between the wood-wind and the brass groups.
Chromatic scale, as already- stated, is obtained
by operating the three valves.
All three-valve instruments
are designed on the same - general principle .,
The first valve (operated by the upper key)
•
lowers the natu ral tone by two semitones •
The second valve (the middle key) lowers the
natural tone by one semito ne.
The third v alve (the lower key) lowers the
natural tone by three semitones.
numerals:
•
Valves are indicated by the respective Roman
I lowers by 2 semitones
II
III
"
n
•
n 1 semitone
" 3 semitones
These indication s are not used in scores or parts,
but merely ror reference, when necessary.
The operation of v alves is s uch that while
blowing the written middle £, for example (the 4th tone which
sounds £), and pressing key I , one obtains b p (sounds !! V ) ;
while blowing the same tone and pressin g key II, one obtains
b � (sounds e � ) ; while bl.owing the same tone and pressing
key III, one obtains a � (sounds d , ) .
•
ao •
u
All other intervals, by which a natural tone can
be lowered, are obtained by a combined use of keys controlling
the op_eration of valves.
tpnes;
•
Thus: I + II lowers the natural tone b y 3 semiI + III lowers the natural tone by 5 semitones;
II + III lowers the. natural tone by 4 semitones;
the combination of all th ree keys lowers the
natural tone by 6 semitones.
In the French hor ns of old make there were some
deficiencies of intonation when the com bined_ valves.were used .
They are abolished. in present manufacturi. n g by a special in.ter
locking of air columns in the valves, which device rectifies
•
the corresponding frequency-ratios •
Valves themselves are additional short pipes,
connectable with the main channel by the operation of the
keys.
The latter affeet nhe pistons or the rotary cylinders .
Cylinders are mo re common. on. the present French horn.
far as tone quality is concerned, it does not make any
difference which particular mechanism is used.
So
Thus keys
open the valves, thereby connecting them with the main channel,
which results in the increase of the air column and, for this
reason, lowers the pitch of a giv en natural tone.
As the change of aml:xilu.d:ure (lip condition with
respect to form and pressure) is never as alert as the finger
tecbn�que, it is preferable to write rapid passages, when they
•
I
can be obtained mainly by the operation of keys.
It is f or
this reason that the c omposer must have an exact knowledge
of the key-valve operations.
Even trills and tremolo legato
are possible when they are obtained thro ug h the use of keys.
It follows from the above that the valve system
is acoustically opposite to the hole system, used on all
wood-wind in struments (i.e., on the br ass instruments natural
tones are lowered, on the wood-wind in struments they are
raised) •
•
French horn is a slow-speaking instrument, and
'
<
for this reason speed is not limited by the '�inger-technique
but rather by a slow ton e-production.
All form s of legato
and staccato, as well as portamento, are available and
distinct.
•
•
The breathing process, as applied to this instru
ment, is normal and healthy .
It is possible, for this
reason, to execute sustained tones or passages of considerable
pe�iod in one exhaling.
Contrary to the double-reed practise,
playing French horn is a healthful occupation.
Due to conical shape of the mouth-piece, double
tongue is not within the scope of this instrument.
One of
the French Horn ' s specialties is the dynamic effect of
sforzando-piano (sfp) .
from the 3d tone upward.
This can be performed at any point
French horn has a wide dyn amic
range but its lower part weakens considerably.
French horn is played either •open (indicated as,
o) or •stopped (indicated +).
The fir st indication is not
•
u
82.
used, except as a cancellation of the nstoppedn.
The
stopping is usually indicated above each attack.
•
Mutes are gene,rally applicable to French horns,
but used by the performers only under compulsion : they
think the stopping "will do".
In volume (intensity) , French horn occupies an
intermediate position between the brass (in relation to
which it is weaker) and the wood-wind instruments (in
comparison with which it is louder, particularly when
played high and ff) .
•
•
,
L
•
10
83 ..
Lesson CCLXVII,
II. Tromba (Trumpet)
Trumpet is a chromatic three-valve instrument.
Depending on manufacture, either cylinders (more often) or
pistons (more seldom) are used.
Of all the types of trumpets, the soprano
(ordi nary) type, in B' and A, is used more universally than
the alto trumpet, in G and F, the piccolo trumpet, in D and
E ', and particularly the bass trumpet, in E P and B !'.
A. Tromba (Sopran4>., Trumpet) ±n B � and A
Of these two designs, preference is given to the
B P - trumpet in the U.. S. A. , while in Europe both tunings are
.G
used for the respective parts.
B �- trumpet exclusively.
Americ an dance-bands use the
Some of the B�- trumpets can be converted into
A - trumpets, by drawing a special telescopic slide which
lowers the range of the instrument by a semitone ..
The hypothetical trumpet in C is transposed two
or three semitones down respectively (like the clarinet) .
Its scale begins with the second natural tone and
ends, for all normal purposes, with the eighth.
Outstanding
trumpeters are able to blow the ninth, the tenth and even the
twelfth tones,
In this case the use of the piccolo tw umpet
becomes unnecessary, as the tone of the regular soprano
trumpet is preferable.
C
on the·other hand, the composer must
not rely on the presence of such a virtuoso in every orchestra,
•
•
84.
even playing the part of the fir�t trumpet.
Natural tone·s are produced by the ambouchure and
the tones between them by fingers, i.e., by pressing the keys
which control the valves.
The trumpeters of American dance
bands produce many chromatic variations and glissando by the
ambouchure.
eighth tone.
These virtuosi very frequently go beyond the
In writing "improvisedfl solos (which in most
.
cases are actually written out and studied) it is best to
test the individual performer •s range - first .
Figur e XXXVII .
The Range of the Tr umpet
'
10
"
•
�:
•
'
4
11-
:2
.
�
'
rI
--
I(;}
.
With the combined use of al l three valves, the
lowest tone of the tru mpet is: f., (in C) , e (in B�) , e � (in
A) .
Tones below the second natural tone are generally weak.
The natural intensity grows with the increase of frequency,
but skilful performers have a considerable control over the
dynamic range of this instrument.,
u
The cup-shaped mouth-piece of the trumpet, the
shape of the bore (slightly deviating fr9m a cylinder to a
cone) and the length of the bore make the transmission of
the tongue attacks more immediate .,,
For this reason the
double and multiple tongue attacks become one of the main
assets of the trumpeter ' s virtuosity (as in the case of a
flute).
Rapid finger-w ork on the keys permits to execute
trills and tremolo legato at a high speed, providing both
.component pitch-units are executed through the same natural
tone (both pitch-units may be keyed, or one '�f them may be
natural) .
(_)
All forms of attacks are well defined on a
trumpet: legato, portamento, so ft and hard staccato .
Scales and even arpeggio can be executed at a
considerable speed.
•
�-� one time the trumpet was considered as mostly
suitable for a performance of signal-like and fanfare -like
music, b ut this viewpoint (considered even by Rimsky -Korsakov)
.
is completely outmoded.
The prestige of this instrument has
been amazingly restored and height ened by jazz.
B. Cornette (Cornet) in B � and A
4•
of
'
cornet a
This instru ment also known under the French name
pistons (i.e., a cornet with pistons; the name
implies chromatic possibilities} , strictly speak ing, does not
belong to the trumpet family.
Its bore is more conical than
t�at of a trumpet; this makes its tone-quality more mellow .
86 •
•
For this reason it is considered a more lyrical instrument
than the trumpet.
Today, however, the skill of performers
is so great that accomplished trumpeters are able to imitate
the sound of a cornet on a trumpet and the sound of a trumpet
on a cornet�
instruments.
In most cases .American cornetists use the B�
It is also customary that a trumpeter plays
both trumpet and cornet.
Cornets are still made mostly· with pistons,
while trumpets, mostl y with cylinders.
The scale of natural tones, the range and the
whole mechanism of execution is practically identical with
ijhat of a trumpet.
•
It is generally considered being somewhat less
alert than the trumpet.
Tone-quality on both trumpet and cornet can be
altered by means of a mute inserted ' into its bell.
The use
of the mute is marked "con sordino"; the cancellation of
this effect, "senza sordino".
American jazz created a real mute-a-mania,
resulting in a great variety of new mutes (straight mute,
cup-mute, harmon-mute etc.) .
Another device, closely
related to mutes is the "hat" (usually made out of metal, in
the shape of a trench helmet or a derby).
It is used for
. glissando "vow-vow" effects (acoustically, a modification o f
the open pipe into the closed pipe).
87 .
Thi s instrument is the prima-donna of a brass
band, but i t found it s way into symphon ic , operatic and
•
part i cularly dance scoring .,
C ., Tromba pic cola (Piccolo Trumpet) in D_tfil� E J,
Thi s i nstrument i s considerably smal ler in si ze
.
than the ordinary trumpet. The D-type is mostly used in
symphonic scoring (for example, Stravinsky ' s "Sacre") , but
relativel y very seldom.
with the brass bands.
The E U- type is much more common
The to ne-qualit y of both i s dec�dedly inferior
to that of a regular trumpet.
The transposition of thi s instrument is analogous
·
to clarinet p iccolo, i.e., two and three semitones up
respectively.
Thus the e ighth natural tone (c) sounds d and
e ► respectively.
As th i s instrument requires an excessive
lip-pressure it is very difficult to produce any tone above
the eighth.
For this reason there seems to be no practical
advantage in the further use of thi s instrument.
D. Tromba C9ntralta (Alto Trumpet} in G• and• F
This is a very useful instrument not only for the
extension of the regular trumpet 's range downward, but also
(and mainly so) for obtai ning better qual ity tones within the
lower reg ister (from the third natural tone down) of a
regular trumpet.
Ri msky-Korsakov made a very extensive use of
this instrument in his operas.
•
88.
It is a softer instrument compared to the B �
and A - trumpet .
The lowest possible pitch on the alto trumpet is
the written ri- (three keys pressed: all valves open) , which
sound cf'" (on the G � trumpet) and b (on the F - trumpet)
respectively, i.e., it transposes down, like the alto flute.
It is quite customary that the performer of the
third trumpet part doubles on the alto trumpet.
E. Tromba Bassa (B�ss Trumpet) in E V and B P
0
Strictly speaking, this instrument is not a
trumpet but a miniature tuba and, therefore, ' belongs to the
so-called saxhorn family (the dominant brass group of the
military bands).
•
•
Wagnerian tuba •
It is also known as tenor tuba or
In many instances the parts written for this
instru,ment are played by the French horns.
The E ' instrument sounds eight semi tones below
the written range; the B P instrument, one octave below the
soprano B� trumpet.
Undoubtedly this instrument becomes obsolete.
There is also a bass trumpet in C - basso which
is very seldom used.
range .,
It sounds one octave below the written
•
89.
Lesson CCLXVIII .
III. Trombone (Trombone)
The type of this instrument which is commonly
used today is known as Tenor-Bass Trombo ne.
Trombone is one of the most remarkable i nstru
ments in the orchestra.
Its design is based on an ingenious
yet very simple principle: it has an air column, whose le ngth
can be varied by means of a slide, which is a part of the
instrument proper.
As a result of such construction trombone
produces a complete chromatic scale carssting of natural
tones on.ly,
•
C
•
The pulling out of the slide increases the
volume of the air-column and produces the standard seven
position,s.
The positi on with the slide pulled all the way in
is considered the first position.
The opposite positio n,
with th.e slide pulled out (to the limit, but still producing
a continuous bore or air-column, as the slide can be pulled
out completely, disjoining the instrument into two individual
sections) is considered the seve nth position.
All other
positions are between t he, two extreme positions .
Thus the
slide actually converts seven natural instruments into one
chromatic instrument.
As different positi ons possess different
acoustical characteristics we shall describe each position
individually.
scale:
The first position has tl1e following natural
•
•
•
90 •
Figure XXXVIII
--.
.,I
••
".I,.
�
41
I, 0
po
I
'
4
,,,..
I
8
,
"
/0
e
""
It,
'rhe second, t:ne t·o1rn and the toiirt'h pos1t1ons have
similar acoustical characteristics.
•
1
8
0
g
10
•
5 ,,----
:m:
•
....
-
4
-
8
'f
Jo
.
42,
Tones produced by the fundamental are often called
pe�al tones.
•
Beginning with the fifth position, the air-col12mn
breaks up into two halves, thus making the production of the
fundamental impossib le.
The fifth, the sixth and the seventh positions
•
have the following natural scale:
-
0
91.
(Fig. XXXVIII, cont.)
I'll
8
•
., ,...--.....,� �S·:.... _.:,.._ _:..::IO�---=-'=--- -- __
= =tt:rr =
lI:
f>
f---4::-fr-_
••
== ==
•
4
••
u
I> ,,---'""'I,
10
•
It is easy to see that after the natural tones of
all seven positions are combined, there appears to be a gap
between the second natural tone of the seventh positionv and
:
the fundamental of the first position
�----•
r.
- --
-
L.,..
L, --
--
,� �
Thus, the following pitches are not available on
the trombone of this type:
-•
0
•
- -e-
'?5"'
�""'
.,
92.
The ability to produce the natural tones above
the tenth depends upon the skill of the performer.
It is
advisable, in writing orchestral parts, not to exceed the
eighth tone, reserving the use of the ninth and the tenth
for exceptional effects.
To compensate the absent pitches within the gap,
an instrument with a special valve has been designed.
This
valve, operated by a string attached to a ring controlling
the opening of the valve, lowers any natural tone by five
semitones (perfect fourth).
For this reason a trombone
'
'
trombone
supplied with such a device is known as a tenor-bass
. -
with a fourth valve.
f
By means of this device, d*, d �, c
and c �
can
be obtained from the second natural tones of t he III, IV, V
•
and VI positions respectively.
Figure XXXIX.
The slide
•
positions
Pitches produced by
'
-
,_
the open valve
The lowest pitch of the gap (b ') stil.l remains
unobtainable, due to the fact that the air-column of the
•
93.
seventh position, augmented by the valve, becomes so great
that it breaks itself into three thirds of the total volume,
thus causing the third natural tone:
slide
impossible
valve
( o)
It follows from this description, that not only
the entire chromatic scale is available, but that some of the
•
pitches are even duplic ated: they appe ar as the different
natural tones of the different slide-positions.
The
preference in such cases depends upon two conditions:
(1) the positional distance from the preceding to the
following pitch; if such positions are too remote and
there is a possibility of obtaining the same pitch on a
different natu r al tone of a nearer position, it is the
positiona] distance that becomes a decisive factor;
(2) the difficulty of producing higher natural tones in the
lower positions as compared to lower natural tones in the
m���,·
highe r positions; for example •
than
I[q
! is easier
-,
94.
Trombone has a cup-shaped mouth-piece.
Its
tone-quality greatly depends on the manner of playing.
Some
trombonists have a bold, powerful tone, some have a mellow
•
lyrical tone and some have both .
The character of tone
greatly depends upon the form of vibrato (tremulant).
forms of vibrato on the trombone are vibrato by pitch
All
(obtained by oscillating the slide within a small pitch
interval,
as on the stringed-bow instruments) , while the
trumpet vibrato is vibrato by intensity and is caused by the
variation of ambouchure.
• '
Trombone is an instrument of a sli'ding pitch par
excellence, easily comparable to the • cello.
For a long time
composers misunderstood the true nature of this instrument.
•
American jazz recaptured the real meaning of a trombone,
though in many instances dance-band trombonists overdo both
the vibrato and the sliding , which renders a sugary character
to the whole performance.
Glissando, which was received in the ' hearing of
•
Stravinsky rs scores as an innovation, in reality is very
basic on a trombone and today became not ouly a common-place
resource, but also a source of annoyance.
From the technical standpoint any glissando can
be executed only on the same natural top� , while the slide is
being gradually moved through its continuous (that is not only
the positional but also interpositional) points .
0
All other
forms of glissando are made by the variation of ambouchure and
95.
are not standardized.
A glissando can be performed either up or down.
It is sufficient to indic ate a glissando by showing the
starti.ng and the ending pitch of it, and connect the two by
a straight or a wav y line:
r"'\
t.
I
,,, -
V
I-
-pi-
The term gliss. may be also added above the part,
if desirable .,
..
The passage just illustrated is executed on the
eig hth natural tone, while pulling-in the slide from the VII
to the I position: gradually.
If a passage falls on the different natural tones,
it
it is impossible to execute/in continuous, i.e., glissando,
form.
For example:
r ,.
.,,,
•
-
y
•
The execution of this passage is impossible
because �v can be only III3 , while if _g_ is the third natural
tone, its fundamental would be �, and there is no such
•
J
96.
u
position on the trombone.
Mutes were very seldom used on the trombones in
the symphonic music of the past.
However, the development
of jazz led to a very exten sive and diversified (including
"hats") use of mutes, in the same manner as it is being used
on the trumpets.
Jazz also, besides raising the standards or
per formance on this in strument, created some outstanding
virtuosi, among whom the greatest arti st is Tommy Dorsey,
particularly because of his unsurpassed tone-quality.
Some trombonists are capable of producing (as a
special effect in the higher pos itions) simultaneously the
u
fundamental and the third harmonic (actu.ally sounding as a
•
In addition to this some jokers sing the fifth
harmonic).
harmonic, thus obtaining a whole triad.
Trombone parts are usually written in the bass and
the alto clefs, while the XIX Century compos ers preferred.the
tenor clef.
Today it is practical to use treble clef for the
higher register, as all trombonists can read these four clefs.
The tenor-bass valve trombone is usually employed
as the third trombone in symphonic scoring, but is seldom
,
used by the dance-bands .
All other types of trombones, such as alto trombone
(in E �, sounding a perfect four th higher than written) or
·
perfect fourth lower than
trombone
('in
F,
sounding
a
bass
written) became completely obsolete.
\__,,
./
•
97 ..
u
The old three-valve trombones of various types
were found unsatisfactory in their tone-quality , which was
•
decidedly inferior to that of the natural (slide) trombone ..
IV. Tuba (Tuba)
This instrument is also known as bass-tuba and
belongs to the sax-horn family, which is fully represented in
the large brass bands.
The tuba, which is used as the standard instrument
of the symphonic and the operatic scoring , seldom appears in
the dan.ce bands.
Dance bands use mostly the- E i, susaphone
bass (a three-valved instrument, commonly used in infantry).
Tuba, acoustically, is an instrument in F, but does
not require transposition.
Its parts sound exactly as written.
Due to traditional use of a quartet c onsisting of
•
three trombon�s and a tuba (usu ally the part of a tuba is
written on the same staff with the third trombone) , c omposers
developed a habit of associating tuba with trom bones.
However, tuba comes closer to French horn than to trombone ..
Its pipe is conical, as that of a French horn, while the
trombone ' s pipe is cylindrical until it reaches its bell ..
The mouth-piece of the tuba is closer in shape to
,
•
that of the trombone, not of the Frenc h horn •
fo
· llows :
The scale of the natural tones of the tuba is as
Figure XL.
8
u
•
(.e. )
,
0
98.
•
It is advisable to use the first six natural
tones, resorting to th e eighth tone only in exceptional c ases.
The tone-quality of the French horn in the high register of
the tuba is preferable and it bears
the latter.
&
c lose resemblance to
Tones below the fundamental are dif ficult to
execute as there i.s a constant danger of overblowing the
•
It is best not to write below d which lies three
fundamental.
semitones below the fundamental.
As there is an interval of a whoie octave between
the fundamental and the second tone, the desi'gn of tuba
requires four valves.
These four valves are evolved according
to the standard three-valve principle, the fourth valve being
capable of lowering a natural tone by 5 semitones.
In
addition to this, tubas used in symphonic and operatic
orchestras have a fifth valve.
The purpose of this valve is
to give an acoustically more satisfactory semitone-valve for
the lower register, as t�e secorid valve is not sufficiently
•
large •
Tuba of the type being described here has a valve
operation on cylinders.
Pistons are to be found in an
instrument serving similar purposes in the in fantry bands,
the ophicleid, which is carried ov er the shoulder while
being played.
Thus the valve arrangement on the five-valve tuba
is as follows:
,
I lowers the natural tone by 2 semitones
V
II
11
"
III
n
n
"
fl
"
"
IV
V
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
IT l
"
T1 3
n
n 5
"
'' 1 large semitone
Combined application of these valves produces any
desirable interval between the first and the second tones .
Tuba is a slow-speaking instrument.
Good intonation
is on e of the main difficulties of this instrum ent.
asset of tuba is its rich tone quality.
The main
Al� forms of attack
are available, but tuba is particularly suite� for long sustained tones and slow passages in general.
No mutes and no
special eff ects are used on the tuba.
•
The Russian composer Shostakovich used, in his
First Symphony, two tubas, instead of the customary one.
As
intonation on the tuba is usually less precise than on the
other brass instrument�, this score, at least wh en being
perform ed in Rus sia, created considerable difficulties during
rehearsal : one tuba is bad enough but two b ecom e unbearable .
,
,
100.
Lesson CCLXIX.
Arpa (Harp)
•
The origin of harp leads back to antiquity.
In
the bas�rel�efs of ancient Egypt, dated as far back as 2700
'
B. C. , court orchestras consisting mostly of flutes and harps
are represented.
In the last two or three centuries harp
underwent many modifications.
Some manufacturers built
chromatic harps and some, diatonic.
The co11temporary harps
are diatonic instruments with a triple tuning.
The contemporary harp is original-ly tuned in a
natural major scale in c F .
octave.
There are seven st.rings to each
All octaves are identical.
The main feature of the
contemporary harp is a set of seven pedals, which control the
tension of strings.
The mechanism of pedals is devised in
such a manner as to allow the modification of the same name
string throughout all octaves.
Thus, by the first step
pressure=position of the c �- pedal, the pitch of all the c v -
strings becomes c �.
By the second pressure-position of the
c P- pedal, the pitch of all the c ► - strings becomes c4" •
Similar mechanism affects the remaining six name-strings.
The step-pressures are independent for each pedal.
While one
pedal is put into its first pressure-position, another pedal
may be put i nto its second pressure-position.
This is
possible because all pedals have an independent operation.
Pressure-positions are retained by the instrument until they
are changed by the performer.
This is possible because each
101.
pedal has a locking arrangement in the form of two
inverted steps:
Figure XLI.
-
ll - po sitiAm-
(o'¼�)
�� ( f-i-wA; � )
�ro�t--t
- �/.; CJ'\'\, ( Su-o .-i d.- ��)
Looking upon the harp from above the pedals
appear in the following arrangement:
Figure XLII._
Accomplished harpists manipulate the pedals with
great dexterity and can rearrange up to four pedals per second.
0
Harpists, the same as pianists, find the different
)
102 .,
strings by tactile distance-discrimination .
However, in
some cases, strings of red color are used for all the o 11 , s
and of blue color, for all the g � • s .
This helps to find the
remaining strings .,
Harp is played by either plucking a string, or a
•
group of strings, by the individual fingers:
(1) in sequence (arpeggiato), which is the normal form of
execution of ohords on a harp;
(2) simultaneously (non-arpeggiato), which should be
indicated by this term.
In addition to this, harp is often played glissando, which is always a chord-glissando and is executed by
u
sliding of one of the fingers over the strings.
•
As glissando
affects all strings within its range, the problem of tuning
glissando-chords becomes of major importance.
Glissando can
also be executed in octaves and other simultaneous intervals .,
As a special effect, octave-harmonics can be used
on a harp.
This is executed by touching the string at its
nodal point (geometrical center) by the palm and plucking by
the finger of the same hand .
If the interval is relatively
small, each hand can produce harmonics in simultaneous
intervals.
Dynamically, harp is a delicate instrument.
It
gains in volume considerably through the use of glissando .,
This effect can be executed in various degrees of the dynamic
L
range (from pp to ff), depending on the pressure exerted over
'
103.
the strings and the speed of sliding over the strings:
increase in speed and pressure results in the increase of
volume ,,
It is important for the c omposer to understand
that when the pressure-positions are alike for all the strings,
only natural major scales in the following three keys result
therefrom: C l1, C �, C 4t".
Original position: c I, - d· 1, - e v - f t, - g P - a'=' - b�
First pressure-position: c � - d )J - e 9- - f ., - g1' - a '1 - b� - .,
•
Second
"
tr
:
c t- _ d #- _ e • - f f:- ... g if _ a:#- _ b�
All other scale-arran.gements require< re-arrangement
of the pressure positions.
u
It would be of great advantage to the c omposer to
•
know that all the 3� forms of � (13), tabulated in the
Special Theory of Harmony, are at his disposal.
And any
tonal expansions which derive from the above master-structures
do not require any rearrangement of the pressure positions.
This
is possible bec ause none of the above · S' (13) contain intervals
greater than 3 semitones, w hioh satisfies the pedal mechanism
of the harp � when tuned in E0 •
As harp is a strictly diatonic instrument, it is
desirable to use it as such.
Quick modulati ons, containing
several alterations, are quite impossible on this instrument.
Many large scores contain two· harp parts (used alternately for
this purpose) , in order to ac complish groups of modulating
chords ,,
•
/
•
1 04 ..
The parts of harp, like that of the piano, are
written on two staves joined by a figured bracket .,
in use are the common bass (F) and tr·eble (G) :
The clefs
Figure XLIII.
right-hand part
left-hand part
•
''
Instrumental forms suitable for the harp �e quite
similar to piano forms.
only at a moderate speed.
V
Octaves, in each hand can be executed
Chords with wide intervals for both
hands are more difficult than on the piano ..
Close positions
a»e preferable to the open ones, though bass can be detached
from the upper structures.
Many effective passages can be
accompli shed by the alternation of both hands.
Here the
•
composer's inventiveness may bring many fruitful developments.
From the viewpoint of a thematic texture, harp can
be looked upon as an instrument similar to piano, i . e . , it can
perform melody (in its various instrumental forms) , harmony,
accompanied melody, correlated melodies and accompanied
counterpoint.
In orchestra it is frequently used as et coloristio
instrument, which is due particularly to its capacity to
ex ecute effective and diversified forms of glissandi (upward,
•
105;.
downward, combined, rotary, etc.)
There is a wide selection of struc tures which can
be executed glissando (such structures often contain repeated
pitches, caused by the adjacent strings enharm onically tuned;
but the speed of the slowest practical glissando is sufficiently
great not to make these repeated pitches apparent to the ear).
There is an easy way to determine whether a certain structure
permits the performance of a glissando: if the structure does
not contain maJor thirds, built on the degrees of a natural
major scale in B b, then glissando is possible .
In other words,
the structure in question shal l not contain the following
simultaneous intervais :
Figure XLIV,
•
•
•
Thus the fo·11owing chords are possible in glissando:
because they do not contain the major thirds referred to in
Fig. XLIV.
On the other hand the following chords are impossible
for the reason that they contain such major tlllrds, as
classified in Fig. XLIV:
J
106 .,
u
p
•
The principle of major thirds of the B�- scale
saves the composer the troub le of empirical verification .,
For �xample, let us see why d -
*
f -
a - c
is
impossible in glissando:
d � -- d �
e P -- is impossible. to stretch to f :#= .,
In other words, e� - string would b� in the way,
u
even if other strings could be tuned to th e given chord .,
On the other hand a chord like c - d - f - a� is
•
possible :
•
ep
f�
g�
b�
---,-
--
e 1f (r11)
f�
g1f ( aV)
b4f (c�)
There are several different forms in use, by
which a glissando can be indicated.
Here are the most
typical ones:
•
107.
0
Figu�� XLV .
•
•
•
•
The tuning of pedals in general, particularly when
parts are harmonically simple, does not require any indication.
Cautious composers, however, often indicate the pedal changes.
Fig__ure XLVI.
For example:
��.�
b. -
.
.�-- -
0
I
_f
i
j
-fl
-
1
""'
'
�
'
-
..•
•
,,,, . '
•
•
108.
In the fourth measure b' and e; do not require
any change in tuning as b� = c P and e 9 =
f �.
Octave harmonics, which are the only
ones used on
thi s instrument, are indicated by zeros above the notes, which
notes should sound as harmonic s in the same octave as written.
Figure XLVII.
0
0
0
0
•
The forms of attacks on the harp correspond to
that of a piano, i .e., legato, portamento, staccato, but the
difference is less distinct than on the piano.
The bas ic timbre of harp resembles clarinet, which
is due to the method of playing (i.e., finger-pluc�ing, instead
of a hammer-attack, as on the piano; piano strings when played
by fingers , without the medi\im of keys and hammers also sound
like the harp).
Harp blends well with flutes and clarinets .
The composer must not forget that harp is a self-sufficient
solo instrument of a diatonic type.
In the orchestra, of course, it is mostly used as
an accompanying and coloristic instrument.
It is also extremely
effective as a semipercussive rhythmic instrument.
•
109 .,
. ,
Sometim�s harp, doubling wood-wind instruments,
produces a more transparent equival.ent of the pizzicato of
stringed instruments.
Carlos Salzedo, who is probably the most accom
plished and the most versatile harpist of all times, has
invented a number of new effects for this instrument.
He
and some of his accomplished st udents (he teaches at the
Curtis Institute in Philadelphia) are capable of executing
these effects.
.
:
=
Organ (Pipe-Organ or its electronic 8Ubstitutes)
Pipe-organ is a more self-sufficient instrument
than any other instrument known.
This is due to the quantity
of tones which can be simultaneously produced and their timbral
•
variety.
The number of different tone-qualities depends on
the number of stops which can be used individually or in
combinations.
More expensive organs usually have more stops,
but price also determines the quality. Organs range from
two-manual to five-manual models, in addition to which every
organ has a pedal keyboard, generally meant for productio n of
lower pitches.
The dynamic range of a pipe• -organ is fully
comparable with that of a full symphony orchestra.
stages ..
u
This instrument underwent many evolutionary
The latest an d most spectacular type of pipe-organ is
the large theatrical organ.
•
This type of instrument is
•
110.
furnished with a very diversified selection of stops
(including many percussive effects, like xylophone, chimes,
etc.) not excluding all the essential stops of an ecclesiastic
organ.
There are a number of pipe-organs in the world
which can be justly considered masterpieces of acoustical
engineering.
•
As organs widely vary in design, number . of manuals,
selection of stops etc. it is impossible to give a detailed
description of a pipe.a..organ.
Basically, however, all pipe
organs possess certain general characteristics which are in
'
common. Some of these generalities are essential for the
�
composer to know.
(1) The amount of pressure exerted by the performer upon the
keys has no effect upon the intensity or character of sound.
(2) Forms of attack are effective: legato, non-legato,
staccato are well pronounced •
(3) Physically, the tone is generated by a pipe or a group of
pipes, which are often built-in at a considerab.le distance
from the console; this produces an effect of delayed action:
a very important detail to bear in mind, while using organ
in combination with other instruments.
(4) Tone-qualities are classified into groups, representing
timbral families: the stri ngs, the flutes, the reeds, the
chalumeaux etc.
u
Each family has a number of distinctly
different stops (e.g., tone-qualities) .
/
111 ..
(5) Each stop has a set of pipes covering a definite range;
organists look upon ranges and registers as represented
by the l ength of respective pipes.
Thus they say: a
4 ' string stop, or an 8 ' reed stop, or a 32' pedal stop ..
The longer the pipe, the lower the pitch.
Certain timbres
are available only in certain registers, while others
cover the entire (or nearly the entire) range.
(6) The massive tone-qualities characteristic of the pipe
organ are due to single, double, triple etc. octave
couplings.
These couplings are executed by pushing the
coupl.er-keys.
Under these conditions, an' organist can
produce a powerful and massive tone by using only one
finger.
•
(7) Volume (the intensity of sound) is controlled by a special
pedal.
Thus gradual dynamic changes are possible.
A
sforzando-piano (sfp) effect is also available on the organ.
(8) Comp.osi tion of stops for the performance of a given piece
of music is known as regi�tratioµ.
The latter is seldom
done by the composer (unless he is an organist) .
Even
when the composer or the editor of organ parts indicates
the registration, it is quite traditional for the
performer to change the indicated registration to one of
his ovm choice.
(9) It is customary to mix the stops belonging to diffe�ent
timbral families as well as couple them through several
octaves.
112.
(10) In addition to this, there are so-called organ
"mixtures", which are pre-set combinations of various
couplings�
When such mixtures are used, one key pressed
by a finger produces a whole chord structure of one or
another type,
Thus melodies may be played directly in
parallel chords.
In some of the organs bu ilt in Germany,
in the second decade of this century, mixtures produ cing
some less conventional chords were introduced (in one
instance, the mixture added to £ produced c - d;f-
rl-
b) .
It is important fo r the composer 'to realize that
ais a consequenee of couplings and mixtures, accompanying each
individual note, what reaches the ear of the listener
(including the organist himself) is quite different from what
•
is written on paper.
Not only the respective octaves and
registers (in the general sense of this word) can be different
than in writing, but they also can be accompanied by whole
sets of new pitches, which even do not appear in the parts.
Often symphonic, operatic, oratorio and cantata
scores contain an organ part.
The above-described characteristics of this instru
ment make it very difficult for the composer to use organ in
an orchestra, or a mixed vocal-instrumental combination,
properly. as often the principle of clarity as a necessary
quality of instrumental and vocal scoring conflicts with the
natural tendencies of this instrument.
For this reason organ,
in most scores, is either mis-used or plays a purely decorative
)
113.
part.
In the old scoring org an was used, according to
ecclesiastic tradition, as a duplication of the choir, and
its part was often written merely as a figured bass, which
•
•
the organist had to f ill-in.
This can be found in the scores
of the le ading composers of XIX Century .
•
Another important characteristic of the organ is
its tone-qua.lity with respect to vibrato.,
Organ can play
non-vibrato or a vibrato by intensiW (some instruments,
particularly in the string-stops have also a mechanical
vibrato of beats, produced by simultaneou s pitches wh ich are
set at sli ghtly different frequencies).
For th is reason,
organ vibrati are mostly of a different ty pe from orchestral
•
vibrati.
Simultaneous use of both often creates conflicts
and discrepancies.
For more details see nAcoustical Basis of
Orchestration" .
Organ parts are mostly written on three staves:
one for pedal, one for the main, lower, manual (known as
great) and one for the Upper manual (known as swell).
Figure XLVIII .
•
114.
Lesson CCLXX.
4
-
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS
This group of instruments is much more diversified
than all other groups combined.
The term "electronic musical instrument" can
define any instrument wtere electric current generates sound
directly or indirectly •
•
There are t,10 basic subgroups of electronic
instruments.
The first subgroup constitutes :Ip.struments where
sound (i.e., sonic frequencies) is generated� by varying the
capacity of an electromagnetic field, created by two currents.
Instruments invented and c ·onstructed by Leon Theremin are
•
based on this principle .
They include three basic models:
(1) Space-controlled Theremin (also known as Victor-Theremin,
later: R. C . A . Theremin) .
(2) Fingerboard-Theremin .
(3) Keyboard-Theremin .
Of t h ese three types, the first acquired far
greater popularity than t he other two models.
Recitals are
being given by various performers on this instrument.
the first composer to use this instrument in a solo
(concertizing) part with a symphony orc hestra.
I was
The composition
was named: "The First Jtirp honic Suite" and was performed by
Leon Theremin as soloist with the Cleveland Orc hestra, in
0
•
Cleveland and New York in 1929, with outstanding success.
•
In
115.
u
1930 a realization of my early drealDs came through.
I
scored, rehearsed and produced together with Leon · Theremin
and 13 other performers, two programs presented at C arnegie
Hall in New York, in. which an ensemble of 14 space-controlled
theremins was presented for the first time.
Space-Controlled Theremin
Each musical instrument displays some character
istics for which it is known.
The chief characteristics of
the space-controlled theremin is its extreme adaptability not
orily to pitch and volume variation, but als.o to the form of
vibrato.
In this respect it is so sensiti ve' that the
pleasantness or beauty of tone largely depends on t�e
performer.
·
..
In order to obtain a "beautiful tone n on this
instrument the performer must know what physical character
istics make a tone "beautiful".
These can be briefly described
as a combination of the vibrato frequency with the depth of
vibrato, i.e., the pitch variation between vibrato points.
As thip text is meant for the composer or orchestrator, there
is no need to elaborate on this matter further.
In 1929 I
wrote "A :Manual for Playing Space-Controlled Theremin", where
these matters are discussed in det ail.
See also "The
Acoustical Basis ofOrchestr ation" described in this theory.
Pitch on the theremin is controlled by the right
hand, which is moved toward and away from a vertical rod
(antenna).
The spatial dimensions of pitch intervals vary .
with respect to total space range, which is adj ustable either
116.
indiv idually or for each performance.
In other words,
pitch is varied within the spatial boundaries of the electro
magnetic field.
Depending on the stature of the performer
and the length of his arms, spatial range may be practically
adjusted (tuned by a knob control) somewhere between one and
three feet.
The electromagnetic field can be imagined as a
three-dimensional invisible fingerboard.
It is so sensitive
that a slight move on the part of the performer affects the
Spatially, intervals contract with 'the increase in
pitch.
frequencies, i.e., moving the hand toward tl\e right antenna
(which is a physical generality; it works the same way on the
C
regular fingerboards, air columns etc . ) .
Not having a fi.xed
length f.ingerboard, the thereill:inist faces, as it proved itself
•
to be the case in many individual instances, a greater
difficulty in pitch control than any string-bow performer .
Yet some performers, who were not even professionals on any
instrument, could master the pitch-control problem in about
two weeks.
Their reaction was that you control pitch mostly
by "feeling of distances", that you play as if you were
•
singing.
•
I am not offering any description of the basic
timbre of this instrument, as each model had a timbre of its
own.
•
Cj
Vaguely they all resemble somewhat a combination of a
stringed-bow instrument (w�en bowed), at its best, if not
better, and of an excellent human voice singing everything
on the consonant "m", which or course has its own basic
/
117 .
acoustical characteristics.
The left antenna of this instrument serves the
purpose of controlling the volume.
The left hand moves
vertically toward (decrease of volume) or away from (increase
of volume) the loop-shaped left ant enna.
The intensity range
can be also spatially adjusted by turning a knob, just as in
pitch-control.
This permits any degree of subtlety in
varying the volume, similar to the right antenna with respect
to pitch.
Playing this instrument is a task in human coordination of both hands and arms, moving through two spaceooordinates.
It would b e just to say that this instrument
is much more delicate and sensitive than any human being who
•
has played it until now•
People with good coordination and sufficient sense
of relative pitch turned out to be better performers than the
eminent musicians. · Leon Theremin and his assistant, George
Goldberg (also an engineer), proved this to be so.
The composer can have at his disposal the entire
audible range, if necessary, and any volume, as sound is
amplified electrically.
All forms of attacks are available�
Space-controlled theremin is a monodic (i.e.,
producing a single tone at a time) instrument par excellence
and, therefore, particularly suitable for broad sustained
u
cantilenas, pedal points, etc.
Rapid passages of any kind
•
118 .,
can be executed by an accompli shed performer at speed
comparable to that of an oboe.
One of the first models of this instrument had
a knob contact for producing attacks.
By pushing the knob
by a finger of the left hand abruptly, one could produce the
most abru.pt forms of staccato, following at any desirable
speed.
The Philadelphia Orchestra, through the
initiative of Leopold Stokowski, its music director, used a
specially built modei of theremin.
This instrument served
the purpose of coupling and reinforcing orcl\estral basses of
various groups.
•
en immense volume amplification •
•
0
It had a pure (that is, sinusoidal) tone and
It is best not to compare the theremin with
•
any other standard orchestra instruments, but to look upon it
•
as the first instrument of the com ing electronic era of music,
having its own characteristics and being co�ceived and
designed along entirely new principles of sound-production
and sound-control .
dynasty.
It is the first child of the electronic musical
Its first model dates back to 1921, when Leon
Theremin demonstrated it in Moscow before a conference of
electrical engineers and inventors.
its early experimental stage.
At that time it was in
In the U . S. A. it was manufactured by R. C.A.
Manufacturing Co., Cam den, New Jersey.
I
119 .
Fingerboard Theremin
u
This instrument was designed and constructed with
the purpose of supplying violinists and • cellists with an
electronic instrument, which they could learn to play in a
very short time.
Some violinists and 'cellists played it
•
with great success.
This instrument • s main part is a cylindrical rod,
about as long as rcello 's fingerboard .
While being played,
The part which
it is held in a position similar to 'cello .,
is touched by the fing ers of the left hand (to which procedure
'
all tt1e string-bow performers are accustomeq.) is covered by
celluloid.
Production of tone results from the contact of a
finger with the celluloid plate.
•
'
similar to that of a •cello.
Thus pitch-control is very
Volume is controlled by a
special lever , resilient and operated by the right hand.,
The higher the pressure upon the lever, the louder the tone.
This form of dynamic control allows not only gradual variations
of intensity but also accents and sforzando-piano.
All forms
of attacks are available by direct contact with the fingerboard.
Though the manner of playing this instrument more
resembles rcello than violin, violinists found it as easy to
play.
The range of this instrument is adjustable, i . e.,
the same model can be tuned in high or low or both registers.
The tone-quality of the fingerboard theremin resembles an
u
idealized 'cello tone (i . e . , one which is deprived of
inharmonic sounds, which usually result from the friction of
120.
horse hair over sheep r s guts, w hile bowing) and is more of
a constant than on the space-controlled model.
Tl1e usual
type of 'cello vibrato gives perfectly satisfactory resµlt.
The basic timbre is quite close to the double- reeds (nasal) .
Of course timbre and other characteristics of
this instrument could be easily modified.
•
Some engineers in
Europe, after Theremin, constructed similar instruments whose
outer design resembled violin, 'cello and bass. Of course
Leon Theremin thought it very funny, because the dimensions
•
and the shape of an electronic fingerboard ,instrument have
nothing to do with its range or registers. '
The fingerboard theremin is a monodic instrument.
u
One of the advantages of having such instruments
•
in t he orchestra is tone-quality, w hich can be suggested to
an engineer or a manufacturer ; another, is its range which
offers a great economy: a passage, star ting on the - •celli
and transferred to the violins, can be executed on one
instrument and by the same perfor mer.
Keyboard Theremin
Keyboard theremin is a monodic instrument, w it h
a standard piano keyboard.
It is a dir ect predecessor of
the solovox, manufactured by the Hammond Organ Company today.
Physically, though, solovox does not belong to the first sub
gr oup, as piano strings, electromagnetically inducted, are
t he original sound-source.
Keyboard theremin, ·on the other
han d, physically operates on the same principle as other
121.
theremin instruments, i.e., variation of capacity of an
electromagnetic field.
This instrument was designed with the purpose
of supplying the keyboard performers with an instrument
which they could play without any additional training, yet
to have an instrument possessing at once $Uch features as
economy of space, any pre-conceived tone-quality, well
expressed forms of attack, .regulated forms of tremulant,
fading effects with vibrato automatically performed (like the
•
Hawaiian guitar) , automatically preset var1-ed degrees of
staccato etc.
The business end of the Theremin �nterprise was
not properly handled.
·U
•
As a result of this, there are not
man·y space-controlled models to be found today, only a little
over a decade since they were built, not speaking of the
fingerboard and the keyboard theremins, of which there are
very few, i f any, left,
Leon Theremin built a number of other electronic
instruments, among them various types of organs with micro
tuning and variable timbre-control (in the design of which I
participated) , but these instruments mostly served the
purpose of �esearch and have never reached the attention of
the public at large.
The purpose of my directing the attention of the
composer to these short-lived models is to show where lie
the future stages of the field of orchestration, as there has
122.
never been any doubt in my mind that the present standard
(non-electronic) instruments will be soon outmoded and
substituted by the perfected electronic models.
In this regard the composer will be confronted
with new approaches and techniques of orchestratio n.
He
will have to think acoustically and not in terms of violins,
clarinets, trumpets etc.
So this is just a note of warning.
The second subgroup of electronic instruments
uses conventional sources of sound (strings, bars,
oscillating membranes etc.), but they are �cited by means
of electromagnetic induction and amplified through a loud-
speaker system.
u
While Theremin•s models were entirely revolution
•
ary and constituted a decidedly radical departure from all
the existing notions of designing musical instruments, the
'
instruments which I refer to as the second subgroup are
decidedly a result of compromise, lack of vision and immediate
commercial considerations.
It will be just to say that the
theremin instruments are more refined as an idea (and · for this
reason the instruments of the first subgroup, eventually, will
resurrect and last longer, in their future improved forms,
while the instruments of the second subgroup will be
considered too crude in comparison, and will die out the way
the player. -piano.· did, when the perfected radio left no room
for its existence), though not sufficiently perfect in the
actual operation, while the existing models of the second sub-
J
123.
group are well designed and built, are reliable in operation
but are based on old-fashioned and often wrong notions as to
what a musical instrument should be.
The instruments of the
second subgroup: are manufactured and sold on a mass production
consumption basis.
They are w idely used today, particularly
in the field of radio and dance music.
The instruments of the sec ond subgroup can be
generally named by their old original names, with the addition
of the definitive "electrified".
•
Thus we can name such models
as electrified piano, electrified organ, el�ctrified guitar, etc .
The history of these instruments leads far back
to Thaddeus Cahill, who constructed, in 1897, the "So�nd
Staves ", a clumsy instrument w ith oscillating membranes,
.
effected by electric current. *
As electronic instrum ents of all types are in an
early stage of their development, and as the present models
may soon become outmoded and obsolete, I shall offer only a
brief description of the models which are most in use today,
and only such a description from which the composer can get
information and ideas valuable per se.
Electrified Piano
This instrument consists of an ordinary piano and
a system of electromagnetic induc tors connected with an
amplified sound system.
There are different designs of this
*For more historical detail see my article "Electricity, the
Liberator of Musi c " in the April issue of Modern Music
Quarterly, published by the League of Composers in 1931
(Vol. 8) •
•
124.
instrument, but ·the resulting sounds have most characteristics
in co mmon.
piano.
This instrument is usually known as electronic
In the U.S.A. the Miessner piano is more known; in
Germany, the Bechstein (famous firm, manufacturing the best
pianos ever built) .
Some of the electronic Bechsteins are
also in use in the U.S .A.
The main feature of all such instruments is the
conversion of a regular piano into several different instru-
ments.
This is accomplished by a system of various preset
forms of induction.
The two characteristic, extreme forms are:
one, which prolongs the duration of a tone indefinitely and
can even increase the volume of it after the respective key
has been released and another, which has a preset form of
•
quick fading, the sound o� which resembles harpsic hord.
There
are usually various intermed.iate effects between these two
extremes.
At the same time this instrument can be used as
before it was electrified, which is of a great practical
adv antage.
Any accomplished pianist or organist can master
this instrument in a very short time.
Solovox (manufactured by the Hammond Organ Co.)
Solovox is a monodic instrument, devised in a form
of piano-attachment.
electrified piano.
In fact, it is a monodic version of an
The _purpose of this instrument is to
execute melody of a durable and, if desirable, tremulant tone
directly from the piano (with the right hand playing the solovox)
and have the accompaniment played by the same performer, on the
same piano (with the left hand). Whether such a combination is
desirable, is a different matter. But this will be discussed in
"Acoustical Basis of Orchestration".
)
125 • .
Lesson CCLXXI.
The Hammond Organ
This instrument (manufactured by the same company;
designed by Lawrence Hammond) is the most universally
accepted of all the larger t"ypes of electronic musical instru
ments. Hammond organ is a fairly complex piece of electrical
engineering, without being bulk y.
The name "organ n is applicable to this instrument
only insofar as the producti on of durable simultaneous sounds
•
is concerned. Otherwise, every organist or any experienced
musician can tell without seeing the instrum�t, whether he
hears a pipe-organ or a Hammond "organ" . . There is undoubtedly
u
a general difference of all tone-qualities and particularly of
•
the pedal, when this instrument is compared with a " real"
organ.
The term "organ" and the insistence of the Hammond Co ..
on the fact that this instrument substitutes the real church
pipe-organ , witho ut taking up as much space and sold for less
money, was influenced by the sales policy.
This company
simply expected to sell most of these instruments to cathedrals,
churches and chapels.
It turned out to be somewhat of a joke,
as this instrument approaches closer to theatrical organs than
to chur�h organs (particularly with a special tremulant speaker
which, by the way, is not manufactured by the Hammond Co .. ) *
Today dance music and "swing" is universally
played on this instrument and the c ompany, obviously, does not
obj ect, so long as it sells.
¾-Vibratone, manufactur·ed by
Brittain SoundEquipment Co·. , Los Angeles
126 ..
u
There are c ertain basic principles upon which
this instrument is designed and built and they are important
for the c omposer to know.
The following information is not available else
where, as it would be detrimental t;o Hammond Co. to disclose
•
such facts •
The first problem is concerned with the fact that
· o und like a pipe-organ, in its tone
this instrument does not s
qualities.
There are two reasons for this.
One, that it is
due to the type of speaker and the whole sound
system, whic h
'
do not permit the high frequencies (the real \partials of a
tone) to come through .
I verified this fact by connecting the
Hammond speaker with a turntable.
,
sound completely "muffled".
Good high fidelity recordings
The second reason is that the
Hammond instrument is not designed to include certain inharmonic
sounds, which are the constants of many organ pipes.
Whether
such inharmonic sounds are desirable per se, is another matter.
The second problem, which in its causes is
inseparable from the first, is concerned with the fact that
this instrument does not sound like a pipe-organ, in its
emission of sound.
While in the case of a pipe-organ, the
emission of sound is not instantaneous (partic ularly speaking
of the old church organs) , due to the nec ess ary time interval
required by transmissio11 from the keyboard of the console to
the pipes and then to the ear of the listener, in the case of
Hammond organ the transmission of sound is instantaneous, due
•
127 ..
t o the speed of electric contacts ..
This p articular character
istic adds one advantage to the Hammond organ, namely, the
hard staccato of extreme abruptness.
Organists complain that
on the Hammond instrument "the sound appears before you t o uch
the key".
The two problems are closely interrelated.
The lack of real high partials on this instrument is due to
the fact that the mech anical design of the Hammond organ does
not permit the use of better speakers and of a better sound
system, as the high-frequency response woul-d make the key-
c ontacts audible (they w ould click loudly) •.
''
Hence, the
"muffled " tone, as the better of the two evils.
The speed of sound transmission could be ea sily
mo dified by a special mechanism of delayed action.
•
The
inharmonic tones co uld be introduced electronically (such
devices were met with success in the electronic instruments
of the first subgroup type built by Dr. Trautwein in Berlin,
in 1928).
The necessity of br ingi ng about such a
discussion is caused by the fact that there is too close a
resem blance between the Hammond and the pipe-organ and not in
favor of the first .. . While the space-controlled theremin has
a superior tone-quality, when compared with any violin or
'cello, the Hammond or gan is an inferi or organ, as compared
u
to a good quality pipe-organ.
A valuable factor in applying electromagnetic
•
•
128 ..
u
induction to oscillating membranes or revolving d.iscs (as
it is in the case of the instrument under discussion) is
•
the stability of frequencies.
So long as the electric
current is relatively stable, i.e . , of a constant voltage,
the instrument, no matter how long in continuous use, remains
in tune.
This is not true of the instruments of the first sub
group, where w arming up of the tubes eventually affects the
pitch.
The Hammond organ, being evaluated per se and
not in comparison with other musical instruments, must be
•
considered a valuable self-sufficient or aux.:i.liary instrument.
'
The chief asset of this instrument is an acoustical system of
quality variation.
Hammond organ produces pitches of a twelve-unit
•
equal temperament in simple (sinusoidal) waves.
These simple
components can be mixed at random at different intensities,
which results in different tone qualities.
The simple
components are called by the names of the nearest tones of
the natural scale.
Each component is controlled individually
and has eight graduated degrees of intensity.
0
The actual
control is executed by pull ¥1g out the respective levers.
There are nine levers corresponding to the nine components of
each tone-quality.
•
rp1 =
©
@
9
·-·
Figure XLIX.
@
'
-
...,
@
I
129.
The numbers in the circles indicate the enumeration
of levers, as they appear from left to right.
@ corresponds to the sub f'll!ldamental, i.e., one octave
@
below the fundamental;
the subthird harmonic, i.e., one octave below the third
harmoni.c;
@ the
fundamental;
@ the second harmonic;
•
© the third harmonic;
@ the fourth harmonic;
....
ff) the fifth harmonic;
u
@
the sixth harmonic;
@ the eighth harmonic.
,
,
We shall consider such a set to be an acoustical
system of components for production of one tone-quality at a
time.
•,
All present models have two such systems for each of
the two manuals •
A special two-lever (two-component) sy stem
(the fundamental and the subthird) controls the pedal.
•
Once the levers of one sy stem are pulled out into
a certa in preJU'ranged position, such a position mechanicall�
corresponds to a certain push-button.
That is, the pre
arranged combination, produc.ing a certain tone-quality, can be
obtained instantaneously, by pushing the corresponding button.
On the model E of Hammond organ the two systems correspond to
u
push-buttons 11 and 12.
The enumeration of push-buttons is
the same for both manuals�
130 _.
All other push-buttons, enumerated from 1 to 10
control pre-set combinations ..
The pre-set combinations are
the most common stops of a church pipe-organ. However, these
too can be rearranged, by changing some of the wire connections
w ithin the conso le.
The total number of tone-qualities for each manual
individually (which would also absorb any of the pre-set
combinations) equals the sum of all combinations by 2, by 3,
• • • • by 9 out of nine elements (corresponding to nine levers) •
•
according ,to the different
Each combination can be modified
•
"
positions of intensity for each lever (of wruch there are
eight) .
Thus if it is originally one-lever setting, each of
such settings has to . be multiplied by 8.
•
9 • 8 = 72 one-lever settings.
There are thus
For a combination of two l�vers,
the value 8 must be squared; for a combination of three
levers, the val ue 8 must be cubed etc.
•
There is no need in making a complete computation
of al l tone-qualities thus obtainable, as it would take
several centuries to play the m thro ugh. However, fro m a
musical standpoint (i.e., fro.m the standpoint of imperfect
auditory tone-quality discrimination) there are not so many
really distinctly different co mbinations, as many modifications
of the same combination sound quite similar to the ear.
Though components of tone-qualities on the Hammond
organ are not real harmonics, but the tones which approximate
0
them in the twelve-unit equal temperament, the very principle
•
1.31 .
of composing tone-qualities from elements and not from
complexes (like the timbres of standard instruments) has a
great educational value for any student of music in general
and for the orchestrator in particular.
Hammond organ is supplied with some controls
adopted from the pipe-organs .
Among these are the various
couplers, the dynamic control swell-pedal, the tremulant
control, the "chorus" etc.
The range of model E is from .£.
of contra-octave to f::f of the fourth octave (it has the
frequency of approximately 6000 cycles and �or responds to
f
@
for f of the first octave on the keyboard, which
lever
pitch is half-an-octave higher than the highest piano .£.) .
•
Besides being a very diversified self-sufficient
•
instrument, Hammond organ is frequently used in small instru
mental combinations to supply the missing timbres.
The composer will make the best use of this
instrument by acquiring the viewpoint upon Hammond organ as
an instrument whose specialty is production of controllable
and highly diversified tone-qualities, combined with
sufficiently versatile forms of attacks and an enormous
dynamic range, without sacrifice of dynamic versatility.
The Hammond organ keyboard has a very light action,
which permits the production of rapidly repeating tones.
In order to help out the orchestrator with a
method by which he could find the basic timbral families out
u
of the enormous number of possible combinations, I have devised
•
I
•
132 r
0
a simple system by which such families can be instantaneously
arranged and easily memori zed.
Thi s system is based on the
patterns of intensity of the different components in relation
to their lever-scale position (which approximately corresponds
to the frequency position) .
The Scale of Basic Tin1bral Families
on the Hammond Organ
Figure L,
Families:
•
Patterns:
....
1. Uniform intensity of all
participating components
0
•
2. Scalewise increase of intensity
of all participating components
3. Scalewise decrease of intensity
of all participating components
4 . Convex arrangement of intensiti es
of all participating components
5. Concave arrangement of intensities
of all participating components
0
•
*] I'(7J!JP
� :s-
l
�
3 I• $'
�
? 1
......
133.
C
6. Selective pattern of partials of
uniform intensity based on odd-
numbered levers.
7 . Selective pattern of partials of
uniform intensity based on even
• • •
••
- -- numbered
levers.
•
This system helps the orch estrator to associate
•
•
timbral families with the corresponding sea�� of visual
patterns:
u
__? �
c=�
� lii.rvvJ 'ui..r-u-ul
�
, --1 ,:::::::::�J LC:::::='
� c
•
The description of these basic qualities in verbal
adjectives is highly inaccurate.
eliminate it altogether.
For this reason I shall
The best way to get ac quainted with
these timbral families is by practical study of this system
of timbral selection at the instrument.
This practical study
variations within each timbral pattern.
For instance, the
should be accompanied by further investigation of the dynamic
second family may vary t�e angle representing intensities:
•
-===:::::::::JJ
<::-:::::I �
etc., or the fourth fa mily
may modify the form of its convexity:
0
•
""""-=--:::::==>>
,;;,::::
___
;;;,
'-.:..:
.___
7
etc.
.,
-
1
This study will be of extreme practical benefit
to any composer or orchestrator, and particularly in view . of
his study of this Theory of Orchestration .
The Novachord
The Novaehord, another Hammond development, is a
keyboard electronic instrument, on which simultaneous sounds
can be produced .,
The name again is misleading, as "chorqan
means · nstring", and of course there are no strings on this
•
instrument. Here again probably purely commercial consfdera�
•;
... tions� broug�t about the implication. that this instru ment i� a
new version of harpsichord or clavichord.
�en its body looks
quite antiquated; though, of course, the design of the body
has no effect upon the sound, as it is an electronic instrument.,
Novachord has the range of a combined stringed-bow
group.
It has one keyboard of the piano type.
It is supplied
with numerous timbre-controls and attack-controls.
This
instr ument can be j ustly considered an improved and developed
version of the keyboard theremin.
One of the specialties of
Novachord are the attack-forms, where the period of fading can
be automatically pre-set.
The forms of vibrato can be also
automatically controlled.
Dynamic variation is controlled by
pedal .,
The timbres of Novachord resemble more closely
(due to the selective system of attack-forms) many of the
standard orchestra instruments, some of them being of such a
high quality, that only the very best performers on the
•
135 .
original instruments can rival it�
Novachord is a very valuable instrument for
substitution of the missing standard instruments in an
ensemble or orchestra.
As a self-sufficient instrument,
which it is meant to be, it is not quite satisfactory.
The .
reason for this is that it is a simultaneously monotimbral
instrument: only one tone-quf:}.lity can be produced at a time.
As the result of this c haracteristic, melody and accompaniment
sound in the same tone-quality and, in addition to this, at
the same volume.
Thus, when melodY is played with an
accompaniment, it can be singled out only by one means: by
playing the accompaniment staccato •
•
•
136.
•
Lesson CCLXXII.
PERCUSSIVE INSTRUMENT
S
We shall adhere to the following definition of
percussi ve instruments: all instruments, where the source
of sound is a string, a membrane or a bar (often built of
-
different materials and used by direct attack and not by
electromagnetic induction) , b elong to the percussive group.
As a consequence of this characteristic, all percussive instru
ments have a naturally (and automatically, unless extended by
some special devices) fading sound.
Therefore the period of
fading is in direct proportion to the intensity of sound, i .e . ,
to the amplitude of its attack.
u
As all the inharmonic (i.e., noise producing)
•
instruments will be described as percussive instruments,
though some of these really are not percussive, one distinction
must be made clear: while basically sound on · the percussive
and inharmonic instruments is produced by attack, it. • is also
.
produced by friction.
For example, any drum can be played - not
only by a stick or a hand attack, but also by rotary motion· of
the palm of the hand over the skin of the drum.
The same
concerns the rubbing of surfaces of ·the two emery · boards, etc.
Some of the instruments known as self-sufficient,
will be described here specifically as orchestral and, there�
fore, CQ�ODistic instruments w Particular attention will be
paid to their percussive possibilities, which are so often
neglected.
•
137.
Percussive sounds of the instruments, which
originally are not meant to be percussive (such as stringed
bow instruments, when played pizzicato, col legno etc. ) ,
will be discussed in the Technique of Orchestration, in the
chapter devoted to the Forms of Attacks.
We shall classify all percussive instruments into
four groups:
Group one, where the source of sound is a string or a bar
(in metal or wood) ;
Group two, where the source of sound is a .,.metal disc;
Group three,
Group four,
"
"
"
"
"
"
materi als.
•
,,
"
,,
11
is a skin membrane;
are various other
fl-roup_ One
Piano
Piano (grand and upright) is a self-sufficient
instrument, most universally used in our musical civilization.
The range of a piano varies from concert grand manufactured
by Bluethner in Germany (whose range extends itself from g
of the subcontraoctave to £ of the fourth octave) to .Alllerican
made five-octave miniature uprights.
The standard range,
however, can be considered 7 1/4 of an octave, which
emphasizes 88 keys (it extends itself from � of the subcontra
c of the fourth octave) .
octave to -
Timbre of the piano, strictly speaking, cannot be
uniform, as its strings are made of different materials,
138 .,
differently shaped and attacked by somewhat differently
designed hammers.,
The upper register and the middle reg ister
consist of straight steel strings used for each tone in groups
The middle-low and the low r egisters have coiled
of three.
copper strings coupled in pairs.
The lowest register has
single copper strings for each tone .,
It is to be remembered that p iano is a strictly
percussive instrument, as strings are excited by the stroke
of a hammer.
The ton e of the piano fades out very quickly,
as the oscillograph shows.
It is our cultivated auditory
imagination that extends the duration of a piano tone.
Physically, a piano tone has a sharp attack and quick fading .
The right pedal being pressed extends the duration of a tone,
•
as this releases the string, permitting it to vibr.ate.
This,
however , does not exclude the fading of a t.o ne, merely
extending the time period of the fading .
In musi cal terms
this can be stated as : the diminuendo is a constant of a
piano t.one.
Piano gets very quickly out of tune because its
system of double and triple strin gs for each tone makes it
physically difficult to maintain perfect unisons.
We had the descript io� of piano possibilities in
the Theory of Instrumental Forms.
Here we are primarily
concerned with the unconventional uses of piano, as percussive
and coloristic orchestra instrument.
u
Igor Stravinsky made an interesting use of four
139 .,
pianos combined with an ensemble of percussive instruments
'
in his "Les No ces".
The real use o f piano as a percussive instrument
comes mainly through the explorations of Henry Cowell, an
•
American composer, who himself is an excellent exp onent of
Cowell has developed an exact and
his own techniques.
thoroughly developed sys tem of playing piano with the forearms
and fists.
Har�onically this device necessitates the use of
"tone-clusters" (Cowell's term).
Under such conditions piano
is capable of producing an amazi._ng volume, , uncommon to this
instrument .
My record library includes my own recordings of
various Cowell devices, as they appear in his own compositi. ons
performed by himself.
market at present.
Unfortunately these are not on the
There is, however, one Victor record of
Ravel's "Bolero" arranged and played by Morton Gould .,
arrangement Cowell's forearm technique was employed.
In this
For
more details on this subject see: Henry Cowell: "New Mu·s1cal
Reso�roes", published by Norton •
Outside of this specialized field of piano
execution, rapid alternating tremolos of both hands and
using three or more . fingers in each hand can be used very
effectively as a percussive device.
Another device, which Henry Cowell uses, and
which is generally not unknown, consists of plucking the
strings or sliding over them (with the right hand) while
0
pressing the keys silently {with the left).
•
Sliding over a
I
140.
u
group of strings permits the sound to come only from such
strings whose keys are pressed.
harp-like tone.
This produces a delightful
Henry Cowell has also developed a highly coloristic
effect which, so far as I know, he is the only one able to
execute.
It consists of sliding over the strings (in the
back of the piano ; somebody has to press the right pedal down
continuously) and sometimes plucking them.
The sliding is
done across an individual string and produces a most fantastic
character.
Cowell often touches the nodal �oints of a string
in order to get harmonics.
•
He holds the strl.ng at a knot with
He has s- o me compositions,
•
one hand and alides with another.
•
device can be used with great success for wind and storm
like nBansheen, entirely written for this technique.
This
effects, as well as for fantastic and ghost- like effects.
The use of regular piano harmonics was made in
Arnold Schoenberg ' s and my own compositions.
Harmonics are
particularly interesting as a variable timbre effects.
By
silently pressing a key (or a group of keys) which corresponds
to the respective harmonic and by striking the fundamental (or
a group of fundamentals) we obtain an actual harmonic.
This
is due to the sympathetic vibrations of the open string in
response to the partial vibrations of the fundamental (which
is executed staccato).
The effect is that of an abrupt
attack, followed by an extended fading harmonic.
It is very
interesting to note that under such conditions each harmonic
has a different timbre.
-
•
141 ..
Example:
Figure LI.
Cases (a) and (b) in the above Figure have
different timbres�
Higher harmonics (preferably the ones
which are used on a trumpet) can also be use4.
Piano is also capable of producing vibrato (in
single to11es or chords) .
Not the imaginary vibrato, where
a pianist is vibrating his finger while pressing the key
,
(which is physi cally meaningless, as after the hammer strikes
the string no manipulation of the key has any effect upon the
string), but- a real physical vibrato by pitch.
This is my own device at which I arrived by the
following way of reasonin g.
If we silently press the eleven
lower keys (which is very easy tQ do with the palm of the
left hand) , then any keys we strike at an interval of an
octave or more would stimulate the respective partials on the
lower open strings.
As the actual partials slightly differ
in pitch with the corresponding keys we strike, those
•
differences in frequencies produce beats, i.e . , vibrato by
pitch.
I used this device ,Jith great success in the piano
part of my Symphonic Rhapsody "October".
All sounds must be
•
142.
u
produced either portamento or staccato.
They come out with
special prominence on a concert grand piano, as there the
strings are correspondingl y longer ·and, for this reason,
their partials -- louder.
This device oan be appiied either
in long durations or in rapid arpeggio .passages.
effect pedal shall not be used.
•
For this
Piano can be turned, for some special effects,
into a harpsichord and other plucked instruments .,
For these
effects, it is necessa•ry to use paper (particularly wax-paper),
placed right on the strings .,
When the hammer strikes a string
covered with paper, it produces a buzzing effect.
u
For a more
drastic percussiveness plywood boards may be used instead of
paper�
•
I made use of the latter in my background music to
"Merry Ghost ", which is a Japanese play by Kitharo Oka and
where this -effect was used to produce a sound resembling
shamisen (a Japanese pl ucked instrument) .
Finally, piano can be used as a sympathetic
resonating (echo) system.
Piano, when its right pedal is
pressed, is able to reproduce sympatheticall y any sounds
which are in its vicinity, i.e., any such sounds whose air
waves can reach the strings with sufficient intensity.
This
concerns both the harmonic and the inharmonic (noises) sounds.
Whistle into the piano and the response is the
same pitch and the same tone quality.
u
sound continues as echo.
This device can be used specifically
as an echo generating device.
•
Sing, and the same
It is a natural phenomenon
I
143 .
based on the physical pattern-response.
before any animals inhabited this planet.
It existed in nature
claim on discovering the echo.
Nobody can lay any
I suggested this device to all my students of
orchestration, and it was Nathan L. Van Cleave who effectively
used it in the scores made for Kostelanetz orchestra.
This
device can be utilized practically, in the alternation of
staccato of an instrument or a group of instruments (preferably identic;µ ones) and its echo; both should follow in
uniform durations.
Figure LII .
•
•
PtAlfo Ee.Ito
too fast.
The alternation of such durations must not be
Many spectacular effects in orchestration can be
achieved by a combined use of these piano devices.
Harp, Novachord, Harpsichord, Guitar, Hawaiian
Guitar in many cases may be looked upon and utilized as
•
144.
percussive instruments.
This consideration does not require any
additional description.
Celeste
Celeste ("divine") is a keyboard instrument
with soft hammers striking metal bars.,
of precious and semi-precious metals r
These bars are made
It renders this instru
ment a tone unsurpassed in delicacy and tenderness.
The most common design of this instrument
•
includes four octaves (the small, the middle, the first and
the second, usually starting from £) •
Figure LIII .
•
•
••
..Q.
,
The parts for this instrument are written on a
two-staff system, the sam e as piano.
and treble (G) clefs are used .
The standard bass (F)
It is a miniatu re self-sufficient instrument, on
which melody, harmony or both can be executed simultaneously.
Chords in their various instrumental forms are frequently
used on celeste, as it produces a very delicate accompaniment
suitable to melody played on the flute, the clarinet (particu
0
larly the subtone) or in a combination with the harp.
•
-
145 .
u
This instrument may be looked upon as a still
more delicate version of chimes.
It can be employed only
in transparent (low dens ity) textures and amidst low dynamics
(p, pp).
Debussy and Ravel used this in strrument extensively
in their scores.
Chaikovsky made some effective use of it in
his "Nutcracker Suite".
Glockenspiel (Orchestra Bells; Campanelli)
This in strument is known in two basic models: the
hammer and the keyboard types.
The hammer orchestra bells are played somewhat like
the xylophone, i.e., by striking the bars with two hammers
(usually made of wood) held in both hands.
The bars, of semi
precious and common metals, are built-in into a portable
•
closing box.
The bars are arranged in two rows, similar to
the arrangement of black and white keys on the piano.
Often
even the musical names of the individual pitches are engraved
on each bar.
This makes it very easy for the performer to
strike the right bar.
chromatic instrument.
design.
Glockenspiel of both types is a
The keyboard model is of the piano
This instrument has a superior tone-quality than
the keyboard model, which is clumsy and produces a less
brill iant tone.
Generally, the tone of this instrument is a
harsher ver sion of the tone of a Celeste.
The attacks, due
to unsoftened hammer s, are more pungent.
u
describe it as a "metallic'' timbre.
•
Some musicians
. .·
•
.
..
146 .,
The range commonly used for both models of
orchestra bells is as follows :
Figure LIV.
-
-
J
I,
,
-
0
Pa r. t·s are usually written on one staff, in treble
clef, but can be written, when necessary, OI\. two stav,es .,
As the sound of this instrument has a relatively
long durability, it is not desirable to write rapid passages,
unless sue� passages represent instrumental form s of one
harmonic assemblage .,
It is to be remembered that Glockenspiel is one of
the most commonly used instruments ..
Its brilliance is due to the dominance of high
partials.
Chimes (Campana)
"Campana" means bell s ; the English term is
"chimes" .
This instrument is used in large orchestras and
has a group of cylindrical metal bars suspended from a frame,
The bars are struck by a large wooden hammer (sometim es two
hammers are used).
This instrument has the sound of the
church carillion and represents the more compact version of
u
the latter.
•
It is used for similar climactic or jubilant
....... .
-•:
..
147.
episodes, or, in some cases, for stimulating associations
with a real carillion.
The carillion, of course, is a to tally different
instrument, consisting of church bells and bars and played
by fists, striking specially designed large keys.
Chimes usually have a set of bars covering one
-
c to o.
chromatic octave from -
The parts are written in the
middle octave, in treble qlef, but have such dominance of
higher partials that, strictly speak�ng, their pitches do
not belong to one particular octave.
blend with the brass instruments.
Chimes make a good
•
Church Bells
This instrument is actually a group of several
•
suspended church bells, matched in their pitches for each
individual score.
Such a set was used in Chaikovsky's
overture "1812", where the church bells represented some of
the standard Russian-Orthodox carillions and conveyed the
idea of jubilation over the retreat of Napoleon Bonaparte
from Moscow.
•
148.
'
Lesson CCLXXIIIt
Vibraphone (also known as Vibra-Harp)
A relatively new instrument, designed and manu
factured in the U.S.A.
It is widely used at present in
practically every dance-band.
There are already several
very eminent virtuosi, who appear as soloists with the dance
bands and small ensembles playing dance music (Adrian Rollini,
Lionel Hampton and others).
This instrument is built on the general principle
of xylophone, but its bars, of quite large ...size, are made of
metal, have resonating tubes under them and ''8.Il extension of
tone.
The latter is achieved by means of electromagnetic
induction (which not only extends the durability of the tone,
(j
•
but also supplies it with an automatic vibrato by intensity)
and is controlled by pressing a special pedal, built for this
purpose.
This device permits the execution of various dynamic
effects, like sforzando-piano.
Vibraphone has a rich "golden" tone and differs
from chimes in its timbral components: it has some similarity,
in its basic timbre, with the "chalumeau" of the
. clarinet •
Vibraphones, depending on their size and price,
vary in range.
following range.
u
Large concert vibraphones usually have the
Figure LV,
• •
-�
II
'
..
•
149 •
This instrument is played by special hammers,
often even of a different design ( to achieve d-ifferent
Some vibraphonists hold two, three and
types of attacks) .
even four hammers in each hand. This permits to execute
some self-sufficient solos in block�harmonies, following one
another at a considerable speed.
Marimba an� Xrlophone
Marimba and xylophone are essentially the same
kind of instruments.
The difference between the two is
chiefly in the resonating cylindrical tubes which are part
of the marimba and are absent on the xylopho'ne.
Both types
have the same kind of wooden bars and are played with the
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special hammers.
•
Xylophone is more traditional with the
symphony orchestras, while marimba is more used with the
dance-bands.
It is interesting to note that many truly
primitive African tribes use the marimba, i . e . , even they
have arrived at the necessity of a resonating medium. The
resonating tubes attribute to the marimba a richer and a
more durable tone.
The music written for this instrument as a
participant of a dance band is considerably more complex
technically than the parts written for the xylophone in
symphonic scoring .
One of the reasons for this is that in
symphony orchestras one of the percussioners plays the :xylo
phone part but he is not expected to be a xylophone virtuoso.
0
In the dance bands, quite to the contrary, the marimbaist is
•
,
J
150.
a specialized soloist (often also playing the vi b�aphone)
and is even capable of handling two, three and even four
hammers in each hand.
Some of such virtuosi handle the xylophone or
the marimba as a very delicate instrument.
This is accom
plished by the use of special soft hammers.
Some of such
performers give a very refined rendition of Chopin's piano
compositions.
One of the very versatile xylophonists even
built a dance band around the xylophone as ' a leading solo
instrument.
H.is name is Red Norvo, and the 'recordings of
>
his performances are available.
,
· The range of the xylophone and of the marimba
In writing fo� symphony orchestra, it is best to
varies.
adhere to the following range:
Figure LVI .
•
I)
�
I,,
,
I
.,
J
0
In writing for the xylophone or the marimba
used in the present American dance-bands the range can be
extended as follows:
0
•
•
151 .
Figure LVII,
-e-
I
�
./
..
/
,
0
Full ·chromatic scale is available in both cases ..
The alt ernate tremolo (like the plectrum tremolo
on the mandol in) of both hands on the same bar (which is
equivalent to the same note) is a common way, of playing long
notes on this instrument .
G
to sound staccato ..
•
All shorter durations are bound
It is an excellent instrument for
execution of IS2p in any form and at practically any speed.
Glissando either over the naturals (c, d, e, f,
g, a, b) or the sharps (cf, df, ff, gf, af) are ano ther
common device on this instrument.
Combinations of both
glissando forms �nd their combinations of ascending and
descending directions can also be used.
Both the xylophone and the marimba have a wide
dynamic range.
Xylophone blends better with the flute,
marimba, either with the low register of t he flute or with
the "c�al umeau n of the clarinet.
Good combinations are also
obtained by using the xylophone with the piano.
Parts for these instruments are usually written on
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the staff in the treble clef (G) .
In many French scores the
xylophone parts are writt en one octave higher than they sotmd •
•
152.
The reason for this is, probably, the dominance of upper
harmonics which, in some cases, produces an impression that
a certain tone sounds one octave higher •
Many interesting accomplishments can result
when parts for this instrument. are written with the full
knowledge of the Theory of In strumental Forms.
The following percussive instruments of this
group can be looked upon as more primitive or more
simplified versions of the instruments already described.
Triangle
...
This instrument consists of one 'long metal bar
of cylindrical form and of relatively small diameter and is
bent into an isoseless or an equilateral triangle _ (hence
•
the name) , not quite closed at its vertex.
It is usually
suspended on a string and is played by striking i t with
another straight metal bar, of about the length of each side
of the triangle itself and of about the same (or smaller)
diameter.
This instrument is a simplified version of a
glockenspiel.
Its high partials dominate to such an extent
that it is considered to be an instrument "without definite
pitch".
Thus, triangle can be used with any harmonic
assemblage whatsoever.
There are only two ways of usipg this instrument:
(1) individual attacks (all staccato) arranged in any
desirable form of temporal rhythm;
•
153 .,
(2) tremolo, which is accomplished by attacking alternately
two adjacent sides of the triangle.
It is an instrument of a limited dynamic range
(generally mf) but can be made to sound very loud in tremolo .
The latter also offers crescendo-diminuendo effects .
The tone-quality of this instrument is very
prominent and very "metallic".
It blends well with all high registers, as at
such frequencies ton-e-qualities lose their timbral character
istics (due to weakness or inaudibility of 'the high partials) .
The
parts for this instrument are, written on a
•
single line.
No clefs are used.
Wood-blocks
Wood-blocks are made in the form of a parallel e
piped (rectangular solid) or, more frequen tly, in the form
of a spheroid (eliptic solid) .
In both cases, some portion
of the solid is carved out, and the hollowness thus formed
contributes to the resonating quality 0f this instrument.
Wood-blocks are made in different sizes to secure
a selection of pitches, but these pitches are not too distinct.
A wood-block may be looked upon as a simplified
version of xylophone.
hamme rs.
The blocks are struck with sticks or
Often (in dance combinations) an outfit consisting
of three, four or fiv e wood-blocks is added to the usual
•
combination of traps so they can be handled by one performer •
Wood-block is a purely rhythmic instrument.
•
154.
However, if a set of several is used, they may be notated
o n the regular five-line staff, where the pitches can be
represented by the closest notes.
Castagnette (Castanets)
Castanets is a n instrument of Spa nish origin, and
in most cases is used in music which is, if not truly Spanish,
somehow associated with Spain.
By tradition casta nets is an
accompanyi ng rhythmic instrument, played by the dancer and
not by an outside . performer.
Castanets are two small hardwood ,plaques (with a
shape of the sole of an infant•s shoe) loose1y joined by a
cord.
They are held within the palm of a hand, wi th the
string put over the middle finger.
The actual execution of
sounds is produced by the fi nger attacks.
Fin-gers strike
one of the castagnets and this, in turn, strikes another.
This produces a clicking and very brilliant high-pitched
inharmonic sound.
I n some cases, two pairs of casta nets are used
(one pair for each hand).
Some of the Spanish and Flamenco dancers are real
virtuosi of this unprete ntious instrument .
It is a highly developed (by tradition) rhythmic
resource i n orchestration and may be looked upon as a
simplified version of xylophone.
It is particularly useful
for animated high-pitched figures, whereas wood-blocks are
considerably lower in pitch and cannot be maneuvered at suc);l
-
155.
a high speed.
The. part of each hand must occupy one line.
Thus for two pairs of castanets two lines must be used.
The advantage of writing on two lines lies in the fact that
it would accommodate many complex interference rhythms,
'
which would still be easy to execute by: · the two hands. It
is well worth while to make a study of the traditional
Spanish castanet rhythms.
Clavis
•
Clavis is a CUban instrument ,. consisting of two
fairly thick sticks made of hardwood.
one stick with another.
CJ
The performer hits
Both sticks are alike.
This instru
ment is commonly used today as a rhythmic ingredient of
•
Afro-Cuban dance forms (Rhumba, Carioca, Samba, Conga etc.)
by our dance orchestras.
The sound of clavis is high-pitched, inharmonic
and piercing.
i
In rhumbas it usually performs the
trinomial (i.e., 3+3+2, 3+2+3, 2+3+3) .
series
The part of clavis occupies one line.
Clavis is ordinarily used with the so-called
rhumba bands, but can be introduced into sy mphonic scoring,
when Cuban. character is present in the music.
Group '.fwo
Gong
0
This instrument comes from Hindustan and China.
It is made in two shapes: a circle or a square (sometimes,
•
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156.
an oblong) .
It is all made out of metal, some of which is
semi-precious and precious.
large in dimensions.
symphony orchestras.
It is usually very massive and
At least this is the type used by the
It is suspended from a frame to which
it is attached at a distance by a pai.r of strings.
Figure LVIII,
II
lI
,
I
,
...
It is the lowest-pitched inharmonic percussive instrument
•
of the metal disc group •
It is attacked by a stick with a round soft end.
The sound is very rich in its qu&lity and has a great
dynamic range, combined with long durability of tone.
blends well with low register of brass instruments. .
It
Gong must be very moderately used, as it is the
last resource of main climaxes.
Too frequent use of this
startling tone-quality neutralizes its character in the
listener's impression.
If the sound of the gong must be shorter than
•
its natural fading peried at a given intensity, it is damped
out by the hand.
Otherwise the term commonly used is
written out above the note: "laisser vibrer" (let vibrate).
C
/
157.
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Fi gure LIX,
C
0
(:
l'
� vi�
0
/
l'
l
l
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As gong has a slowly fading sound, successive
attacks require a considerable time-interval between them.
Piatti (CYWbals}
Cymbals consist of a pair of disc's of approxi -
mately 18" diameter.
precious metals.
•
They are made of semi-precious and
Each disc has a leather handle, in the
form of a short loop, , by which it is held,
Cymbals are played in two basic ways:
(1) by striking one cymbal over the other (for louder and
more prolonged sounds, with a certain amount of friction) ;
(2) by making a tremolo of alternating attacks over one
suspended cymbal (which is 1n horizontal position); for
this purpose either hard drumsticks (which . results in
harsher tone-quality and higher-pitch.ed) or kettle-drum
sticks (whieh are soft and render lower-pitched softer
tone).
•
The range of cymbals, the tone of which c onsists
of rich inharmonic sound-complexes, varies depending on the
form of attack.
•
When the friction surface is small, the
•
158.
sound is higher-pitched.
Cymbals cover approximately the range of trom
bones (exclud ing their pedal tones) and trumpets, with
which they blend very wel l.
Cymbals struck by one another, i.e., cymbals
held in hands usually are not indicated in any way, except
by their temporal values and dynamics.
A suspended cymbal
is usually recognized by the performer, because its part is
•
written as tremolo (indicated ---.....- over the note).
The use
of hard sticks is marked : colla baghetta da tamburo.
The
use of soft sticks is marked: co lla mazuola '-or colla baghetta
da timpano.
Tti1e standard terminology is notoriously c l umsy.
I recommend to my students to use my own nomenclature,
which is simple and economical, and permits a much more
diversified use of the different types of attack:
a suspended cymbal :
(a) hard sticks:
•
(b) soft sticks:
--o
two cymbals in hands:
O
I usually make footnotes at the beginning of my
scores explaining the meaning of these symbols.
I made the
first use of this nomenclature in 1921.
An instrument which at once belongs to Group Two
(discs) and Group Three (membranes) is a well known
Tamburino (Tamburin)
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•
159 ..
This instrument consists of a circular wooden
frame over which a skin membrane is stretched, covering one
side o f it. · Thus the form of the membrane is a circle.
In
addition to this, there are small (about 1.5" in diameter)
metal double discs, loosely attached in a perpendicular
position to the frame of the tamburin.
The tamburin viewed
from above appears as follows:
Figure LX.,
•
,
This instrument, associated with Italian and
Spanish folk dancing, is played by either striking the skin
with the palm, which at once produces a high pitched inharmonic
drum sound and the jingling of the discs (high pitched
"metallic" inharmonic sound), or by shaking the tamburin in
the air (held by the left hand), which produces the j ingling
,
of discs alone, or by producing a n oscillatory frictional
movement o ver the skin, by the thumb of the right hand,
which results in a scintillating t¥pe of tremolo.
Often
these ways of playing the tamburin are combined in effective
dynamic and rhythmic sequences.
A great deal of varying the
attack forms is left to the initiative of the performer.
160.
The parts are commo nly written on one line,
indicating the durations a:nd the dynamics.
Tremol o is
marked as u�al by.: �
Group Three
Timpani (Kettl e-Drums)
Kettle-drums are the first percussive i nstrument
to occupy a lasting place in symphonic scoring.
It was
Josef Hayd n, who i ntroduced them (Simfonie mit P.auckenschlag
[symphbny with kettle-drums]) .
Since that time they have
become a standard ingredient of symphonic �d operatic scoring.
.
...
Kettle-drums are ordinarily usea in groups of
three and four .
u
The origi nal selection of three kettle-drums
usually furnished the tonic, the subdominant and the dominant.
,
Today they are used i n any pitch-group combination that
satisfies the harmonic need.
Kettle-drum consists of a hollow copper hemi
sphere, with a skin membrane stretched over its equatori.al
circumference.
The tension of the membrane is adjustable,
in other words, kettle drums can be tuned.
This is a.c com
plished by screwing i n and out the handles (of which there
are several around the skin surface) controlling the tension
of the membr a ne.
It calls for a keen sense of pitch, to
tune kettle-drums, as it has to be done quietly while the
orchestra is playing.
Kettle-drummers (or tympanists)
usually know the parts of th e neighbori ng instruments, from
0
which they borrow the necessary pitch.
•
The n they tune the
)
I
161.
membranes and try them out quietly, while the orchestra
is playing loud enough before their entrance.
Each kettle-drum produces one pitch at a time.
To obtain many pitches at a time would require as many
•·
kettle-drums.
as 16 of them.
Berlioz used in one of his scores as many
Considering the usual equipment of the large
symphony orchestra, it is advisable not to use more than
four.
In some instances two simultaneous tympanists can be
used, in which case one may count on four or five instruments .
•
The three standardized sizes, ,usually allow the
tuning ,,ithin the following ranges :Figure LXI.
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o·
The total range may be considered practical even
if one semitone 1s added at each end:
Figure LXII,
,...
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r� r�
162.
Rimsky-Korsakov ordered for his opera-ballet
"Ml.ada" a small kettle-drum, which could be tuned up to
d p of the middle octave.
He c alled it "timpano piccolo".
The contem porary .Amebican-made kettle-drums have
a pedal device for automatic tuning .
This device is
supposed to stretch the membrane at all points at an equal
tension, which is not too reliable in actu�l practice.
The
performers still hav� to rely on their pitch-discrimination.
The tuning of kettle-drums is marked at the
beginning of the score, like this, for in�tance: Timpani in
F, B P, c.
u
When the tuning changes, the peti'ormer is warned
by the composer in advance, as a c ertain amount of time is
necessary for tuning of this instrument (the actual time
•
period required largely depends upon the performer's
experience and skill).
It is indicated like this, for
example: muta in G, B , D.
Kettle-drums are played (the parts are written
in the bass clef [F] on a regular five-line staff; two
staves can be used if necessary) by two special sticks,
having soft spheroid-like ends.
The whole performance
consists of individual and rolling (i.e ., alternating
tremolo attacks; the latter may affect one or two instruments)
attacks.
This instrument has an enormous dynamic range
and in ff can pierce the entire tutti of an orchestra.
0
c resoendi are particularly effective in tremolo (marked:
Big
163 ..
u
Sometimes, very seldom though, very delicate
sounds are obtained by m uting.
Flannel or other soft
cloth is put over the skin of a kettle-drum .
The use of
such mutes is indicated by: timpani coperti (i.e. , covered
kettle-drums).
To restore the normal effect, "modo
ordinare" is used as a term.
The sound of kettle-drums does not possess too
•
•
distinct a pitch.
This is due to the abundance of lower
in.harmonic to nes.
This instrument has a quickly fading
tone.
The pitch, due to the presence of l�w inharmonics,
•
'
seems to the ear lower than it is writ ten. '
•
0
•
•
•
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164 ..
u
Lesson CCLXXIV,
Gran Cassa (Bass-Drum)
-
This instrument has a cylindrical frame of very
large diameter.
sides.
The skin-membranes are stretched on both
It i s considered to be an instrument without definite
pitch, as the inharmonic tones predominate and all frequencies
are very low.
Bass-drum is usually played by a special stick,
made for this instrument .
The parts are usually very simple,
are written on one line, and consist of merely individual
attacks.
Of course other sticks can be us'ed, an d the
execution of tremolo is also possible ..
0
Some of the bass-drums used by the dance-bands
•
have a narrow frame and only one membrane •
Bass-drum blends n aturally with low pitches ..
Tamburo (Snare-Drum)
This is the most alert instrument in the entire
third group .
In shape it is the same as the bass-drum; its
size is considerably smaller.
While the bass-d rum is p layed
in vertical position, this drum is played in an almost
horizontal position (there is a small angle to the horizon) .
It is played by a pair of hard sticks, known as drum-sticks.
Snare-drum derives its name from the snares which
are a pair of thin gut strings, stretched across its lower
head and producing a rattling sound .
Sometimes tamburo is used without snares (it is
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165.
u
quite customary with the dance bands) , in which case this
should be indicated: "no snares".
sounds.
This instrument produces middle-high inharmonic
It has a wide dynamic range.
The speed of rolling is the main feature of
this instrumen t.
Even the equivalent of grace-notes is
often extended into rolls (marked:
fJ
,
i.e ., the small
note is the roll and the large note is the attack).
It is suitable for any intricate rhythmic
•
patterns which can be executed practicall.Y. at any speed.
'
in America.
The jazz era created many outst'anding drummers
Yet the patterns of their improvised rhythms
are still very one-sided and limited, as compared t o their
u
canni bal colleagues in Belgian Congo •
•
Snare-drum has al?.rays been in use in all
military organizations.
inherited association.
Its martial character by no,v 1s a.n
The parts are written on one line .
For the students of this system, there are many
opportunities in utilizing the snare-drum as a tw·o-part
instrumental interference medium.
Pango Drums
•
This outfit usually consists of a pair of drums.
•
The shape of the frame is a hollow inverted cone (it can be
played on either side) , which at its open ends has skin
membranes .
One of the drums is somewhat larger tha n the
166.
u
other, but there is no fixed ratio .,
Pango drums are
played by hands.
Though probably of Af rican origin, it is widely
used in Cuban rhumbas and conga s.
R.hythmic patterns
executed by the Cuban performers are often extremely
intricate (mostly based on splitting of the
·i
series) .
Pango drums are of ten employed by the rhumba
bands, and Cuban performers are very common.
Tom-Tom
This instrument con si sts of a �mall cylindrical
frame, which is relatively wide for its size.
skin membrane over its frame..
It i s ordinarily used (one or
more) in jazz bands and played with a stick.
•
It has one
sound blends with the middle regist er.
Its inharmonic
. Group Four
thi s group .,
this group .,
N o instrument can be con sidered standard in
All special sound-effect in struments belong to
There is neither any need nor possibility to
describe all such in struments, as new types are being
deve. loped and
ill troduced
every year.
Some of these instru
men ts have a brief popularity after wh ich most of them
become ob solete .,
The purpose of bringing sound-effect in struments
to the composer ' s attention is to stimulate his re source-ful
ness and to suggest that he too c an u se some special
materials for sound effects.,
It is also advi sable for him
f
167.
to study the history of instruments and to attend the
music departments of museums, as this would give him a
proper perJpective and ori�ntation in the subject .
One of the more commonly known instruments of
t h is group is an ordinary sheet of iron (usu�ly termed in
Frenc h: feuille de fer) .
By holding suc h a -sheet at one e
· nd
and shaking it, one obtains thunder-like �ounds.
Single
strokes and tremolo also can 'be executed on a suspended iron
sheet, using t h e different types of standard sticks.
Cow bells are used sometimes as- a musical instru.
ment for .descriptive music of bucolic c hara\?ter. T he bells
can be either shaken or struck wit h a hard stick.
T heir
tuning is unimportant, as t he use of them is supposed merely
to suggest cow pastures.
Emery boards (I used them in my Symp honic Rhapsody
"October" : to produce a steam engine effect) are used some
times in symphonic and dance scoring.
Rubbing o f the
surfaces of two emery boards (i.e., sound is obtained by
friction and not by attack) produces a powerful sound.
It
1s an excellent descriptive medium for locomotive or train
effects.
Musieal saw was once very popular.
as an instrument of the melodic type.
It was used
Two methods of playing
were used: striking it with a stick or a small hammer, or
striking it with t he bow (usually a long stroke ending wit h
staccato) .
It is an extremely effective instrument, whose
168 .,
tone-quality resembles an idealized soprano voice and
whose vibrato can be co ntrolled by the performer .,
The
handle is held rigidly between the knees and the end of the
saw is s·appprted by the middle finger of the left hand .,
While the finger presses the end of the saw, the entire
saw bends: the greater the curvature, the hig her th� pitch.
Bow or hammer produce attacks and are held in the right hand.,
�oday composers· begin to use phonograph
•
records with sound effects (birds, animals and other sounds
of the surroundi ng nature); the latter ar� included as
compo nent parts of a score.
Program and �ackground music in radio and
(j
cinema utilize such recordings and often simply transfer
,
them on a sound-track .,
•
There is a sound-effect renting record library,
containing any imaginable sound (there are more than 10,.000
The firm is located in New York, but
items now) _effects.
it supplies the entire country.
Human Voices (Vocal I nstruments)
Human voice is one of the original natural
musical instrume nts.
It is by no means sta ndardized .,
There
are too many types of voices and too many ways of using
them.
Each national cul ture has different types of voices
and different D!ethods of singing.
Even different styles of
music within one national culture often call for totally
different manners of execution.
Just to get a bold illustra-
•
,
169 .,
tion, compare t he bel canto style of operatic vocal art
with the so popular crooning or "torch-singing " of today.
The contrasts in singing of different nations are at least
as great.
Compare, for instance, French folk singing with
Siamese folk singing or with Abkhasian (some of the Black
Sea Caucasian shore; the mythicaJ Jand of Golden Fleece
[Jason D choral singing which has a unique instrumental char
•
acter of its own •
Even in the so-called European musical culture
we find such different styles as the Itali{m bel canto, the
'
Russian vocal style (like Chaliapine) , the flerman liedersinging etc.
Then we find such contrasting styles as vocal
jazz ensembles and the plain chant of the Catholic Church.
(_j
•
No doubt new styles will appear in the future •.
Besides the necessity 9f con sidering all these
stylistic and national differences in the voice as musical
instrument, there are also biological differences and
modifications, which take place as time goes on. One of
such modifications is the appearance of greater differentia
tion of ranges and characters.
Some time ago there were
mostly tenor and bass male voices.
Later it became necessary
to single out the i· ntermediate type: baritone .
bass-baritones, tenor.-baritones etc.
Nov, we have
Standard parts of the
classical repertoire are not writ ten for them; so they have
to either sing the parts which are too high or too low. for
them, or else look for composeFs who would write for these
•
•
170.
new vocal instruments.
Sometimes we also encounter biological aberra
ti ons producing such voi ces as a lti no, which is not only
higher than the male t enor, but also has a peculiar quality
of its own, not to be confused with a boy • s alto - or a
female ' s contralto _
Rimsky-Korsakov even wrote a part for
an al.tino (the astrologer in ncoq d ' Or") , for which Russia
•
found only two performers •
There are also other cases of vocal travesti,
like the lrussian Gyps� singer Varia Panina who possessed a
'
'-
genuine barit one; or another Russian singer� Anna Meichi c k,
who had suc h a massive and wide-ranged contralto that she
u
sang the part of Demon, 1n Rubinstein's opera of th,e same
name.
Anna Meichick was the first contralto at the Metro
politan Opera House in New York for many years.
With all thi s .in view, the problem of describing
standard human voi ces seems to be insoluble.
What the
composer has t o be aware of is .t hat when wri ting for an
oboe, he has a pretty well defined auditory image in his
mind, while when writing for a tenor, he would not know what
•
•
he would get in the actual performance •
There are other considerations of equal importance.
one of them i s t he effect of language upon the style of
vocal e xecution.
And this often concerns such important
facts that the very nature of the Italian language (i . e .,, the
type and the di stri bution of vowels and con sonants) makes
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u
17 1 .
singing easy and natural and the artiiculation clear, as
compared to the English language.
A number of good
singers, whose native tongue is English, sing be tter in
Certain English sounds, like th, do not permi t
Italian.
to get a proper air impac t.
On the other hand, · the entire
manner of singing in French, due to i ts phonetic a nd articu
latory nature, acquire.s a nasal charac te r (on, en, un, in
etc.).
composer.
All this naturally cannot be neglected by the
Thus, in order to present a �omewhat practical
description of human voice� as orchestral instruments, I
have to resort to somewhat specialized generalities •
•
.Among these are the sta ndar,d choral ranges,
as they are traditionally used in our scoring for a capella
or accompanied chorus .
Soloists sometimes have wider ranges.
But it is not always the case •
.Another generalization can be drawn with
respect to basic timbres of vowels, in which case I shall
use the Latin pronunciati. o n of vowels ,,
No other components can be generalized, as all
tone-qualities are indivi dual; their forms of vibrato are
also individual.
Physically, each sound produced by the
same voice on the differen t vowels of the same pitch, or on
the same vowel differently pitched, not speaking of t he
differe n t vowels differently pitched, has a different char
acter.
But this we cannot take into consideration, as eve n
-
172 .
•
violin changes i ts character (and in many instances even
timbre) on different strings .
Another component, which cannot be generalized,
is dynamics.
The volume of voice an d i t s dynamic range
v aries individually.
Powerful voices, if combined with
pleasing qu ali ty, are considered valu able, as such voices
can produce a powerful impression by their dynamic versa
tility.
•
Nowadays the timbr e, the character an d the volume
can b e considerably modified either b y us ing a mic rophone
o� by acou stical modification of the sound-track, which is
,,
' .
constantly done in the radio and the cinema fiel d.
•
Neither can individual articulating quality
(which, strictly speaking, belongs t o the field of vocal
attacks) be generalized, even when considering one particu.lar
•
language. Some out standing singers had magnificent articula
•
•
tion in addition to their vocal quality and general technique •
I can mention two, as an example of perfect articulatory
techniqu e, though these singers belong to two different
national cultures : one, Mattia Battistin± (an Italian bari
tone); another, Theodore Chaliapine (a Russian basso) •
Now, after making all these necessary warnings,
I can proceed with the description of �horal ran-ges and
basic timbres of the latinized vowels.
In some cases composers write certain · solo, or
even choral parts, for a definit e. perform er or a de finite
CJ
organization of performers.
In such a case, of course, he
173.
u
can do a better job, as his parts would be more fitting
for the individual characteristics of the soloist or the
ensemble.
Figure LXIII .
•
Standard Choral Ranges
Female Voices:
•
Soprano I (usually Dramatic Soprano)
Jl..
:t
<;1
..
dt============::;�=��==�====================�������
Soprano II ·(Mezzo-Soprano, Mezzo-Contralto)
T
Alto (usually boys)
•
(continued on next page)
0
Contralto
I•
Male Voices:
Tenor I (usually Dramatic Ten or)
.a..
�
•
Tenor II (Baritone)
.
i
I
"
�
..
-,-
-�
�;___
r-.-------------::
2�::.,__.....;.::
Basso I
---*
__.
-
\.
-
,
-•
_______---::. . --------------
-
Basso II (usually Basso Profundo)
•
Male voices, when written in treble clef, sound one octave lower .
The so-called lyric sopranos and tenors usually have the range of
sopPano II and tenoP II pespeotively, but with less developed
lower register.
0
No. t. I.ooae Lear
•
175 .,
Figure LXIV.
Timbral Scale of the Five Basic Latin Vowels
Latin
English Phoneti c
u
00
0
oh
a
R
stopped
eh
double reed RR
ee
i
0
reed
ah
e
open
Timbre
closed
•
· ive basic timbral
This scale relates the vowels to r
groups, with which each vowel blends itself �espeotively.
'
Thus, O corresponds to flutes ., R to clarinets, ED to horns,
RR to oboes and bassoons,
e
to nasal ti mbres and muted
instruments (muted brass, celli, muted stringed instruments
in general) .
This scale can be extended to nine units, by means
of combined vowels.
The latter can be obtained by mixing of
the adjacent vowels of the basic scale.
A nine-unit scale may
be extremely helpful in evaluating general timbral eharacter
istics of the English, French ., German and Scandinavian vowels.
Figure LXV.
Timbral Scale of the Four Combined (Intermediate) Vowels
•
Latin
U
+
0
English
u (up)
O+ R
a (as)
$ + RR
o + a
o (cod)
e + 1
1 (it)
a + e
Timbre
R + E&
RR + .
•
176.
Further supplements, which may still be necessary,
derive from c ombinations of the non-adjacent vowels.
The
most important of these are somewhat common to La.tin, English,
French, German and Scandinavian.
Figure LXVI .
Latin
The Two Additional Combined Vowels
English
e (alert)
•
1
(bird)
(Phonetic )
oe
French
German
Timbre
u
.u.
o +e
eu
u (fur)
y
••
''
R + RR
All other u-vowels, as in the English word "you",
or the so�nd of Russian character " l-0 11 (pronounced: you) , have
an attack of the attack of the English "Y" (as in "yoke"), or
u
German "j" (yot), or Russian " u" (brief
11ee"
[in Russian:
ee kratkoye]) and the duration of . the Latin " u", or English
"oo".
This information is sufficient to guide the
student in the field of basic vowel characteristic s and help
him to understand the reason for selecting one or another
ins trumental timbre in the accompaniment to vocal parts, wqich
is based on coin cidence (similarity) or juxtaposition (contrast)
of the basic timbral characteristics, such as "u" (Latin) , for
flute, "o" (Lsatin), for clarinet, etc.
* * * * *
•
•
Media of
